Cicero

Marcus Tullius Cicero [a] (/ˈsɪsəroʊ/ SISS -ə-roh ; Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs ˈt ʊlli.ʊs ˈkɪkɛroː]; 3 January 106 BC – 7
December 43 BC) was a Roman st at esman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writ er and Academic
skept ic,[4] who t ried t o uphold opt imat e principles during t he polit ical crises t hat led t o t he
est ablishment of t he Roman Empire.[5] His ext ensive writ ings include t reat ises on rhet oric,
philosophy and polit ics. He is considered one of Rome's great est orat ors and prose st ylist s and t he
innovat or of what became known as "Ciceronian rhet oric".[6][7][8] Cicero was educat ed in Rome and in
Greece. He came from a wealt hy municipal family of t he Roman equest rian order, and served as
consul in 63 BC.

He great ly influenced bot h ancient and modern recept ion of t he Lat in language. A subst ant ial
percent age of his work has survived, and he was admired by bot h ancient and modern aut hors
alike.[9][10][11] Cicero adapt ed t he argument s of t he chief schools of Hellenist ic philosophy in Lat in
and creat ed a large amount of Lat in philosophical vocabulary via lexical innovat ion (e.g. neologisms
such as evidentia ,[12] generator, humanitas , infinitio, qualitas , quantitas ),[13] almost 150 of which
were t he result of t ranslat ing Greek philosophical t erms.[14]

Though he was an accomplished orat or and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his polit ical career
was his most import ant achievement . It was during his consulship t hat t he Cat iline conspiracy
at t empt ed t o overt hrow t he government t hrough an at t ack on t he cit y by out side forces, and
Cicero (by his own account ) suppressed t he revolt by summarily and cont roversially execut ing five
conspirat ors wit hout t rial, an act which would lat er lead t o his exile. During t he chaot ic middle period
of t he first cent ury BC, marked by civil wars and t he dict at orship of Julius Caesar, Cicero was a
support er of t he Opt imat es fact ion. Following Caesar's deat h, Cicero became an enemy of Mark
Ant ony in t he ensuing power st ruggle, at t acking him in a series of speeches. He was proscribed as an
enemy of t he st at e by t he Second Triumvirat e and consequent ly execut ed by soldiers operat ing on
t heir behalf in 43 BC, having been int ercept ed during an at t empt ed flight from t he It alian peninsula.
His severed hands and head (t aken by order of Ant ony and displayed represent ing t he repercussions
of his ant i-Ant onian act ions as a writ er and as an orat or, respect ively) were t hen displayed on t he
Rost ra.[15]

Pet rarch's rediscovery of Cicero's let t ers is oft en credit ed for init iat ing t he 14t h-cent ury
Renaissance in public affairs, humanism, and classical Roman cult ure.[16] According t o Polish hist orian
Tadeusz Zieliński, "t he Renaissance was above all t hings a revival of Cicero, and only aft er him and
t hrough him of t he rest of Classical ant iquit y."[17] The peak of Cicero's aut horit y and prest ige came
during t he 18t h-cent ury Enlight enment ,[18] and his impact on leading Enlight enment t hinkers and
polit ical t heorist s such as John Locke, David
Cicero
Hume, Mont esquieu, and Edmund Burke was
subst ant ial.[19] His works rank among t he most
influent ial in global cult ure, and t oday st ill
const it ut e one of t he most import ant bodies of
primary mat erial for t he writ ing and revision of
Roman hist ory, especially t he last days of t he
Roman Republic.[20]

Early life

First-century AD bust of Cicero at the

Capitoline Museums, Rome

Born 3 January 106 BC

Arpinum, Italy

Died 7 December 43 BC
(aged 63)
Formia, Italy

Arpino, Italy, birthplace of Cicero

Cause of death Assassination (by
order of Mark
Antony)

Occupation(s) Statesman, lawyer,

writer, orator

Office Quaestor (Sicily)

(75 BC)
The Young Cicero Reading by Plebeian aedile
Vincenzo Foppa (fresco, 1464), now (69 BC)
at the Wallace Collection
Praetor (66 BC)
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January Consul (63 BC)
106 BC in Arpinum, a hill t own 100 kilomet ers Legate under
(62 mi) sout heast of Rome.[21] He belonged t o t he Pompey (57 BC)

tribus Cornelia.[22] His fat her was a wealt hy

member of t he equest rian order and possessed Proconsul (Cilicia)
good connect ions in Rome. However, being a (51–50 BC)

semi-invalid, he could not ent er public life and Proconsul (Greece

and Italy) (49–
st udied ext ensively t o compensat e. Lit t le is
47 BC)[1]
known about Cicero's mot her Helvia, but Cicero's
brot her Quint us wrot e in a let t er t hat she was a Spouses Terentia (79–51 BC)
[23] Publilia (46–45 BC)
t hrift y housewife.

Cicero's cognomen, a heredit ary nickname, comes Children Tullia and Cicero
Minor
from t he Lat in for chickpea, cicer. Plut arch
explains t hat t he name was originally given t o one Relatives Quintus Tullius
of Cicero's ancest ors who had a cleft in t he t ip of Cicero (brother)
[24]
his nose resembling a chickpea. The famous
family names of Fabius, Lent ulus, and Piso come Philosophy career
from t he Lat in names of beans, lent ils, and peas,
Notable work Orations [show]
respect ively. Plut arch writ es t hat Cicero was
Philos [show]
urged t o change t his deprecat ory name when he
ophical
ent ered polit ics, but refused, saying t hat he would works
make Cicero more glorious t han Scaurus
("Swollen-ankled") and Catulus ("Puppy").[25] Era Hellenistic
philosophy
At t he age of 15, in 90 BC, Cicero st art ed serving
under Pompey St rabo and lat er Sulla in t he Social Region Western philosophy
war bet ween Rome and it s It alian allies.[26] When
School Academic
in Rome during t he t urbulent plebeian t ribunat e of skepticism[2]
Publius Sulpicius Rufus in 88 BC which saw a short Classical
bout of fight ing bet ween t he Sulpicius and Sulla, republicanism
who had been elect ed consul for t hat year, Cicero Eclecticism
found himself great ly impressed by Sulpicius'
Main interests Politics · law ·
orat ory even if he disagreed wit h his polit ics.[27]
rhetoric · theology ·
He cont inued his st udies at Rome, writ ing a ethics ·
pamphlet t it led On Invention relat ing t o rhet orical epistemology
argument at ion and st udying philosophy wit h Greek
Notable ideas Exceptio probat
academics who had fled t he ongoing First
regulam in casibus
Mit hridat ic War.[28]
non exceptis
Humanitas
 Inter arma enim
Education
silent leges
Non nobis solum
During t his period in Roman hist ory, Greek
O tempora, o mores!
language and cult ural st udies were highly valued
Salus populi suprema
by t he elit e classes. Cicero was t herefore
lex esto
educat ed in t he t eachings of t he ancient Greek Summum bonum
philosophers, poet s and hist orians; as he obt ained
much of his underst anding of t he t heory and
pract ice of rhet oric from t he Greek poet Archias.[29] Cicero used his knowledge of Greek t o t ranslat e
many of t he t heoret ical concept s of Greek philosophy int o Lat in, t hus t ranslat ing Greek
philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad educat ion t hat t ied him t o t he
t radit ional Roman elit e.[30]

Cicero's int erest in philosophy figured heavily in his lat er career and led t o him providing a
comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,[31] including creat ing a
philosophical vocabulary in Lat in.[32] In 87 BC, Philo of Larissa, t he head of t he Plat onic Academy
t hat had been founded by Plat o in At hens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired
by an ext raordinary zeal for philosophy",[33] sat ent husiast ically at his feet and absorbed Carneades'
Academic Skept ic philosophy.[34][35]

According t o Plut arch, Cicero was an ext remely t alent ed st udent , whose learning at t ract ed
at t ent ion from all over Rome,[36] affording him t he opport unit y t o st udy Roman law under Quint us
Mucius Scaevola.[37] Cicero's fellow st udent s were Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who
became a famous lawyer, one of t he few whom Cicero considered superior t o himself in legal
mat t ers), and Tit us Pomponius. The lat t er t wo became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who
lat er received t he nickname "At t icus", and whose sist er married Cicero's brot her) would become, in
Cicero's own words, "as a second brot her", wit h bot h maint aining a lifelong correspondence.[30]

In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes. This was perhaps t o avoid t he pot ent ial
wrat h of Sulla, as Plut arch claims,[38][37] t hough Cicero himself says it was t o hone his skills and
improve his physical fit ness.[39] In At hens he st udied philosophy wit h Ant iochus of Ascalon, t he 'Old
Academic' and init iat or of Middle Plat onism.[40] In Asia Minor, he met t he leading orat ors of t he
region and cont inued t o st udy wit h t hem. Cicero t hen journeyed t o Rhodes t o meet his former
t eacher, Apollonius Molon, who had t aught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone t he excesses in
his st yle, as well as t rain his body and lungs for t he demands of public speaking.[41] Chart ing a middle
pat h bet ween t he compet ing At t ic and Asiat ic st yles, Cicero would ult imat ely become considered
second only t o Demost henes among hist ory's orat ors.[42]
Early career

Early legal activity

While Cicero had feared t hat t he law court s would be closed forever, t hey were reopened in t he
aft ermat h of Sulla's civil war and t he purging of Sulla's polit ical opponent s in t he proscript ions. Many
of t he orat ors whom Cicero had admired in his yout h were now dead from age or polit ical violence.
His first major appearance in t he court s was in 81 BC at t he age of 26 when he delivered Pro
Quinctio, a speech defending cert ain commercial t ransact ions which Cicero had recorded and
disseminat ed.[43]

His more famous speech defending Sext us Roscius of Ameria – Pro Roscio Amerino – on charges of
parricide in 80 BC was his first appearance in criminal court . In t his high-profile case, Cicero accused a
freedman of t he dict at or Sulla, Chrysogonus, of fabricat ing Roscius' fat her's proscript ion t o obt ain
Roscius' family's propert y. Successful in his defence, Cicero t act fully avoided incriminat ing Sulla of
any wrongdoing and developed a posit ive orat orical reput at ion for himself.[44]

While Plut arch claims t hat Cicero left Rome short ly t hereaft er out of fear of Sulla's response,[37]
according t o Kat hryn Tempest , "most scholars now dismiss t his suggest ion" because Cicero left
Rome aft er Sulla resigned his dict at orship.[44] Cicero, for his part , lat er claimed t hat he left Rome,
headed for Asia, t o develop his physique and develop his orat ory.[45] Aft er marrying his wife, Terent ia,
in 80 BC, he event ually left for Asia Minor wit h his brot her Quint us, his friend Tit us At t icus, and
ot hers on a long t rip spanning most of 79 t hrough 77 BC.[46] Ret urning t o Rome in 77 BC, Cicero again
busied himself wit h legal defence.[47]

Early political career

In 76 BC, at t he quaest orian elect ions, Cicero was elect ed at t he minimum age required – 30 years –
in t he first ret urns from t he comitia tributa , t o t he post of quaest or. Ex officio, he also became a
member of t he Senat e. In t he quaest orian lot , he was assigned t o Sicily for 75 BC. The post , which
was largely one relat ed t o financial administ rat ion in support of t he st at e or provincial governors,
proved for Cicero an import ant place where he could gain client s in t he provinces. His t ime in Sicily
saw him balance his dut ies – largely in t erms of sending more grain back t o Rome – wit h his support
for t he provincials, Roman businessmen in t he area, and local pot ent at es. Adept ly balancing t hose
responsibilit ies, he won t heir grat it ude.[48] He was also appreciat ed by local Syracusans for t he
rediscovery of t he lost t omb of Archimedes, which he personally financed.[49]
Promising t o lend t he Sicilians his orat orical voice, he was called on a few years aft er his
quaest orship t o prosecut e t he Roman province's governor Gaius Verres,[50] for abuse of power and
corrupt ion.[51] In 70 BC, at t he age of 36, Cicero launched his first high-profile prosecut ion against
Verres, an emblem of t he corrupt Sullan support ers who had risen in t he chaos of t he civil war.[52]

The prosecut ion of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success[53] for Cicero. While Verres hired t he
prominent lawyer, Quint us Hort ensius, aft er a lengt hy period in Sicily collect ing t est imonials and
evidence and persuading wit nesses t o come forward, Cicero ret urned t o Rome and won t he case in a
series of dramat ic court bat t les. His unique st yle of orat ory set him apart from t he flamboyant
Hort ensius. On t he conclusion of t his case, Cicero came t o be considered t he great est orat or in
Rome. The view t hat Cicero may have t aken t he case for reasons of his own is viable. Hort ensius
was, at t his point , known as t he best lawyer in Rome; t o beat him would guarant ee much success
and t he prest ige t hat Cicero needed t o st art his career. Cicero's orat orical abilit y is shown in his
charact er assassinat ion of Verres and various ot her t echniques of persuasion used on t he jury. One
such example is found in t he speech In Verrem, where he st at es "wit h you on t his bench, gent lemen,
wit h Marcus Acilius Glabrio as your president , I do not underst and what Verres can hope t o
achieve".[54] Orat ory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an import ant t ool for
disseminat ing knowledge and promot ing oneself in elect ions, in part because t here were no regular
newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neit her a pat rician nor a plebeian noble; his rise t o polit ical
office despit e his relat ively humble origins has t radit ionally been at t ribut ed t o his brilliance as an
orat or.[55]

Cicero grew up in a t ime of civil unrest and war. Sulla's vict ory in t he first of a series of civil wars led
t o a new const it ut ional framework t hat undermined libertas (libert y), t he fundament al value of t he
Roman Republic. Nonet heless, Sulla's reforms st rengt hened t he posit ion of t he equest rian class,
cont ribut ing t o t hat class's growing polit ical power. Cicero was bot h an It alian eques and a novus
homo, but more import ant ly he was a Roman const it ut ionalist . His social class and loyalt y t o t he
Republic ensured t hat he would "command t he support and confidence of t he people as well as t he
It alian middle classes". The opt imat es fact ion never t ruly accept ed Cicero, and t his undermined his
effort s t o reform t he Republic while preserving t he const it ut ion. Nevert heless, he successfully
ascended t he cursus honorum, holding each magist racy at or near t he youngest possible age:
quaest or in 75 BC (age 30), aedile in 69 BC (age 36), and praet or in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as
president of t he "Reclamat ion" (or ext ort ion) Court . He was t hen elect ed consul at age 42.
Consulship

Cicero Denounces Catiline, fresco by Cesare

Maccari, 1882–1888

Cicero, seizing t he opport unit y offered by opt imat e fear of reform, was elect ed consul for t he year
63 BC;[56][57] he was elect ed wit h t he support of every unit of t he cent uriat e assembly, rival
members of t he post -Sullan est ablishment , and t he leaders of municipalit ies t hroughout post -Social
War It aly.[57] His co-consul for t he year, Gaius Ant onius Hybrida, played a minor role.[58]

He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian t ribune which would have
appoint ed commissioners wit h semi-permanent aut horit y over land reform.[59][56] Cicero was also
act ive in t he court s, defending Gaius Rabirius from accusat ions of part icipat ing in t he unlawful killing
of plebeian t ribune Lucius Appuleius Sat urninus in 100 BC.[60] The prosecut ion occurred before t he
comita centuriata and t hreat ened t o reopen conflict bet ween t he Marian and Sullan fact ions at
Rome.[60] Cicero defended t he use of force as being aut horised by a senatus consultum ultimum,
which would prove similar t o his own use of force under such condit ions.[60]

Catilinarian Conspiracy

Most famously – in part because of his own publicit y[57] – he t hwart ed a conspiracy led by Lucius
Sergius Cat ilina t o overt hrow t he Roman Republic wit h t he help of foreign armed forces. Cicero
procured a senatus consultum ultimum (a recommendat ion from t he senat e at t empt ing t o
legit imise t he use of force)[57] and drove Cat iline from t he cit y wit h four vehement speeches (t he
Cat ilinarian orat ions), which remain out st anding examples of his rhet orical st yle.[61] The Orat ions
list ed Cat iline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Cat iline's senat orial sympat hizers as
roguish and dissolut e debt ors clinging t o Cat iline as a final and desperat e hope. Cicero demanded
t hat Cat iline and his followers leave t he cit y. At t he conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was
made in t he Temple of Jupit er St at or), Cat iline hurriedly left t he Senat e. In his following speeches,
Cicero did not direct ly address Cat iline. He delivered t he second and t hird orat ions before t he
people, and t he last one again before t he Senat e. By t hese speeches, Cicero want ed t o prepare t he
Senat e for t he worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Cat iline.[62]

Cat iline fled and left behind his followers t o st art t he revolut ion from wit hin while he himself
assault ed t he cit y wit h an army of "moral and financial bankrupt s, or of honest fanat ics and
advent urers".[63] It is alleged t hat Cat iline had at t empt ed t o involve t he Allobroges, a t ribe of
Transalpine Gaul, in t heir plot , but Cicero, working wit h t he Gauls, was able t o seize let t ers t hat
incriminat ed t he five conspirat ors and forced t hem t o confess in front of t he Senat e.[64] The senat e
t hen deliberat ed upon t he conspirat ors' punishment . As it was t he dominant advisory body t o t he
various legislat ive assemblies rat her t han a judicial body, t here were limit s t o it s power; however,
mart ial law was in effect , and it was feared t hat simple house arrest or exile – t he st andard
opt ions – would not remove t he t hreat t o t he st at e. At first Decimus Junius Silanus spoke for t he
"ext reme penalt y"; but during t he debat e many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried t he
precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various It alian t owns. Cat o t he
Younger t hen rose in defense of t he deat h penalt y and t he Senat e finally agreed on t he mat t er, and
came down in support of t he deat h penalt y. Cicero had t he conspirat ors t aken t o t he Tullianum, t he
not orious Roman prison, where t hey were st rangled. Cicero himself accompanied t he former consul
Publius Cornelius Lent ulus Sura, one of t he conspirat ors, t o t he Tullianum.[65]

Cicero received t he honorific "pater patriae" for his effort s t o suppress t he conspiracy,[66] but lived
t hereaft er in fear of t rial or exile for having put Roman cit izens t o deat h wit hout t rial.[67] While t he
senatus consultum ultimum gave some legit imacy t o t he use of force against t he conspirat ors,[b]
Cicero also argued t hat Cat iline's conspiracy, by virt ue of it s t reason, made t he conspirat ors enemies
of t he st at e and forfeit ed t he prot ect ions int rinsically possessed by Roman cit izens.[60] The consuls
moved decisively. Ant onius Hybrida was dispat ched t o defeat Cat iline in bat t le t hat year, prevent ing
Crassus or Pompey from exploit ing t he sit uat ion for t heir own polit ical aims.[68]

Aft er t he suppression of t he conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment .[69] Some of his
polit ical enemies argued t hat t hough t he act gained Cicero popularit y, he exaggerat ed t he ext ent of
his success. He overest imat ed his popularit y again several years lat er aft er being exiled from It aly
and t hen allowed back from exile. At t his t ime, he claimed t hat t he republic would be rest ored along
wit h him.[70]

Short ly aft er complet ing his consulship, in lat e 62 BC, Cicero arranged t he purchase of a large
t ownhouse on t he Palat ine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest cit izen, Marcus Licinius
Crassus.[71] To finance t he purchase, Cicero borrowed some t wo million sest erces from Publius
Cornelius Sulla, whom he had previously defended from court .[72][71] Cicero boast ed his house was "in
conspectu prope totius urbis" ("in sight of nearly t he whole cit y"), only a short walk from t he Roman
Forum.[73]

Exile and return

In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invit ed Cicero t o be t he fourt h member of his exist ing part nership wit h
Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly t hat would event ually be called t he First
Triumvirat e. Cicero refused t he invit at ion because he suspect ed it would undermine t he Republic,[74]
and because he was st rongly opposed t o anyt hing unconst it ut ional t hat limit ed t he powers of t he
consuls and replaced t hem wit h non-elect ed officials.

During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, t he t riumvirat e had achieved many of t heir goals of land reform,
publicani debt forgiveness, rat ificat ion of Pompeian conquest s, et c. Wit h Caesar leaving for his
provinces, t hey wished t o maint ain t heir hold on polit ics. They engineered t he adopt ion of pat rician
Publius Clodius Pulcher int o a plebeian family and had him elect ed as one of t he t en t ribunes of t he
plebs for 58 BC.[75] Clodius used t he t riumvirat e's backing t o push t hrough legislat ion t hat benefit ed
t hem. He int roduced several laws (t he leges Clodiae) t hat made him popular wit h t he people,
st rengt hening his power base, t hen he t urned on Cicero. Clodius passed a law which made it illegal t o
offer "fire and wat er" (i.e shelt er or food) t o anyone who execut ed a Roman cit izen wit hout a t rial.
Cicero, having execut ed members of t he Cat iline conspiracy four years previously wit hout formal
t rial, was clearly t he int ended t arget .[76] Furt hermore, many believed t hat Clodius act ed in concert
wit h t he t riumvirat e who feared t hat Cicero would seek t o abolish many of Caesar's
accomplishment s while consul t he year before. Cicero argued t hat t he senatus consultum ultimum
indemnified him from punishment , and he at t empt ed t o gain t he support of t he senat ors and consuls,
especially of Pompey.[77]

Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and t oured t he st reet s. Clodius' gangs dogged him,
hurling abuse, st ones and even excrement . Hort ensius, t rying t o rally t o his old rival's support , was
almost lynched. The Senat e and t he consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was st ill encamped near
Rome, was apologet ic but said he could do not hing when Cicero brought himself t o grovel in t he
proconsul's t ent . Everyone seemed t o have abandoned Cicero.[78]

Aft er Clodius passed a law t o deny t o Cicero fire and wat er (i.e. shelt er) wit hin four hundred miles of
Rome, Cicero went int o exile.[76] He arrived at Thessalonica, on 23 May 58 BC.[79][80][81] In his
absence, Clodius, who lived next door t o Cicero on t he Palat ine, arranged for Cicero's house t o be
confiscat ed by t he st at e, and was even able t o purchase a part of t he propert y in order t o ext end
his own house.[73] Aft er demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had t he land consecrat ed and
symbolically erect ed a t emple of Libert y (aedes Libertatis ) on t he vacant land.[82]
Cicero's exile caused him t o fall int o depression. He wrot e t o At t icus: "Your pleas have prevent ed me
from commit t ing suicide. But what is t here t o live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflict ions
surpass any you ever heard of earlier".[83] Aft er t he int ervent ion of recent ly elect ed t ribune Tit us
Annius Milo, act ing on t he behalf of Pompey who want ed Cicero as a client ,[76] t he Senat e vot ed in
favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast t he single vot e against t he decree. Cicero ret urned
t o It aly on 5 August 57 BC, landing at Brundisium.[84] He was greet ed by a cheering crowd, and, t o his
delight , his beloved daught er Tullia.[85] In his Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices , Cicero convinced t he
College of Pont iffs t o rule t hat t he consecrat ion of his land was invalid, t hereby allowing him t o
regain his propert y and rebuild his house on t he Palat ine.[86][87]

Cicero t ried t o re-ent er polit ics as an independent operat or,[76] but his at t empt s t o at t ack port ions
of Caesar's legislat ion were unsuccessful[75] and encouraged Caesar t o re-solidify his polit ical
alliance wit h Pompey and Crassus.[88] The conference at Luca in 56 BC left t he t hree-man alliance in
dominat ion of t he republic's polit ics; t his forced Cicero t o recant and support t he t riumvirat e out of
fear from being ent irely excluded from public life.[89] Aft er t he conference, Cicero lavishly praised
Caesar's achievement s, got t he Senat e t o vot e a t hanksgiving for Caesar's vict ories, and grant
money t o pay his t roops.[90] He also delivered a speech 'On t he consular provinces' (Lat in: de
provinciis consularibus )[89] which checked an at t empt by Caesar's enemies t o st rip him of his
provinces in Gaul.[91] Aft er t his, a cowed Cicero concent rat ed on his lit erary works. It is uncert ain
whet her he was direct ly involved in polit ics for t he following few years.[92] His legal work largely
consist ed of defending allies of t he ruling t riumvirs and his own personal friends and allies; he
defended his former pupil Marcus Caelius Rufus against a charge of murder in 56.[93] Under t he
influence of t he t riumvirs, he had also defended his former enemies Publius Vat inius (in August
54 BCE), Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (bet ween July and Sept ember) and Gnaeus Plancius (wit h t he Pro
Plancio) in Sept ember, which weakened his prest ige and sparked at t acks on his int egrit y: Luca Grillo
has suggest ed t hese cases as t he source of t he poet Cat ullus's double-edged comment t hat
Cicero was "t he best defender of anybody".[94]

Governorship of Cilicia

In 51 BC he reluct ant ly accept ed a promagist racy (as proconsul) in Cilicia for t he year; t here were
few ot her former consuls eligible as a result of a legislat ive requirement enact ed by Pompey in
52 BC specifying an int erval of five years bet ween a consulship or praet orship and a provincial
command.[95][96] He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in t he provinces t hree
mont hs lat er around August .[95]

In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeat ed by t he Part hians at t he Bat t le of Carrhae. This
opened t he Roman East for a Part hian invasion, causing unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero rest ored
calm by his mild syst em of government . He discovered t hat a great amount of public propert y had
been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of t heir st aff, and did his ut most t o
rest ore it . Thus he great ly improved t he condit ion of t he cit ies.[97] He ret ained t he civil right s of, and
exempt ed from penalt ies, t he men who gave t he propert y back.[98] Besides t his, he was ext remely
frugal in his out lays for st aff and privat e expenses during his governorship, and t his made him highly
popular among t he nat ives.[99]

Besides his act ivit y in ameliorat ing t he hard pecuniary sit uat ion of t he province, Cicero was also
credit ably act ive in t he milit ary sphere. Early in his governorship he received informat ion t hat prince
Pacorus, son of Orodes II t he king of t he Part hians, had crossed t he Euphrat es, and was ravaging t he
Syrian count ryside and had even besieged Cassius (t he int erim Roman commander in Syria) in
Ant ioch.[100] Cicero event ually marched wit h t wo underst rengt h legions and a large cont ingent of
auxiliary cavalry t o Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Ant ioch
and were heading sout h t hrough Syria, ravaging t he count ryside again. Cassius and his legions
followed t hem, harrying t hem wherever t hey went , event ually ambushing and defeat ing t hem near
Ant igonea.[101]

Anot her large t roop of Part hian horsemen was defeat ed by Cicero's cavalry who happened t o run
int o t hem while scout ing ahead of t he main army. Cicero next defeat ed some robbers who were
based on Mount Amanus and was hailed as imperat or by his t roops. Aft erwards he led his army
against t he independent Cilician mount ain t ribes, besieging t heir fort ress of Pindenissum. It t ook him
47 days t o reduce t he place, which fell in December.[102] On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left t he
province [103] t o his brot her Quint us, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his legat e.[104]
On his way back t o Rome he st opped in Rhodes and t hen went t o At hens, where he caught up wit h
his old friend Tit us Pomponius At t icus and met men of great learning.[105]

Julius Caesar's civil war

Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC.[103] He st ayed out side t he pomerium, t o ret ain his
promagist erial powers: eit her in expect at ion of a t riumph or t o ret ain his independent command
aut horit y in t he coming civil war.[103] The st ruggle bet ween Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more
int ense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of t he senat e and Republican
t radit ion, but at t hat t ime avoided openly alienat ing Caesar.[106] When Caesar invaded It aly in 49 BC,
Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senat or, court ed Cicero's favor, but
even so Cicero slipped out of It aly and t raveled t o Dyrrhachium where Pompey's st aff was
sit uat ed.[107] Cicero t raveled wit h t he Pompeian forces t o Pharsalus in Macedonia in 48 BC,[108]
t hough he was quickly losing fait h in t he compet ence and right eousness of t he Pompeian side.
Event ually, he provoked t he host ilit y of his fellow senat or Cat o, who t old him t hat he would have
been of more use t o t he cause of t he optimates if he had st ayed in Rome. Aft er Caesar's vict ory at
t he Bat t le of Pharsalus on 9 August , Cicero refused t o t ake command of t he Pompeian forces and
cont inue t he war.[109] He ret urned t o Rome, st ill as a promagist rat e wit h his lict ors, in 47 BC, and
dismissed t hem upon his crossing t he pomerium and renouncing his command.[109]

In a let t er t o Varro on c. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero out lined his st rat egy under Caesar's dict at orship.
Cicero, however, was t aken by surprise when t he Liberatores assassinat ed Caesar on t he ides of
March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in t he conspiracy, even t hough t he conspirat ors were sure of
his sympat hy. Marcus Junius Brut us called out Cicero's name, asking him t o rest ore t he republic when
he lift ed his bloodst ained dagger aft er t he assassinat ion.[110] A let t er Cicero wrot e in February 43 BC
t o Trebonius, one of t he conspirat ors, began, "How I could wish t hat you had invit ed me t o t hat most
glorious banquet on t he Ides of March!"[111][112] Cicero became a popular leader during t he period of
inst abilit y following t he assassinat ion. He had no respect for Mark Ant ony, who was scheming t o
t ake revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnest y for t he assassins, he arranged for
t he Senat e t o agree not t o declare Caesar t o have been a t yrant , which allowed t he Caesarians t o
have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies int act .[113]

Opposition to Mark Antony and death

Marcus Tullius Cicero dragged from his litter and

assassinated by soldiers under the command of
Mark Antony 43 BC (1880 illustration)

In April 43 BC, "diehard republicans" may have revived t he ancient posit ion of princeps senatus
(leader of t he senat e) for Cicero. This posit ion had been very prest igious unt il t he const it ut ional
reforms of Sulla in 82–80 BC, which removed most of it s import ance.[114]

On t he ot her side, Ant ony was consul and leader of t he Caesarian fact ion, and unofficial execut or of
Caesar's public will. Relat ions bet ween t he t wo were never friendly and worsened aft er Cicero
claimed t hat Ant ony was t aking libert ies in int erpret ing Caesar's wishes and int ent ions. Oct avian was
Caesar's adopt ed son and heir. Aft er he ret urned t o It aly, Cicero began t o play him against Ant ony. He
praised Oct avian, declaring he would not make t he same mist akes as his fat her. He at t acked Ant ony
in a series of speeches he called t he Philippics ,[115] named aft er Demost henes's denunciat ions of
Philip II of Macedon. At t he t ime, Cicero's popularit y as a public figure was unrivalled.[116]

The Vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura y

Montaner, 1888 depicting Fulvia inspecting the
severed head of Cicero

Cicero support ed Decimus Junius Brut us Albinus as governor of Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina ) and
urged t he Senat e t o name Ant ony an enemy of t he st at e. The speech of Lucius Piso, Caesar's
fat her-in-law, delayed proceedings against Ant ony. Ant ony was lat er declared an enemy of t he st at e
when he refused t o lift t he siege of Mut ina, which was in t he hands of Decimus Brut us. Cicero's plan
t o drive out Ant ony failed. Ant ony and Oct avian reconciled and allied wit h Lepidus t o form t he
Second Triumvirat e aft er t he successive bat t les of Forum Gallorum and Mut ina. The alliance came
int o official exist ence wit h t he lex Titia , passed on 27 November 43 BC, which gave each t riumvir a
consular imperium for five years. The Triumvirat e immediat ely began a proscript ion of t heir enemies,
modeled aft er t hat of Sulla in 82 BC. Cicero and all of his cont act s and support ers were numbered
among t he enemies of t he st at e, even t hough Oct avian argued for t wo days against Cicero being
added t o t he list .[117]

Cicero's death (France, 15th century)

Cicero was one of t he most viciously and doggedly hunt ed among t he proscribed. He was viewed
wit h sympat hy by a large segment of t he public and many people refused t o report t hat t hey had
seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in Formiae in a lit t er heading t o t he
seaside, where he hoped t o embark on a ship dest ined for Macedonia.[118] When his killers –
Herennius (a Cent urion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said t hey had not seen
him, but he was given away by Philologus, a freedman of his brot her Quint us Cicero.[118]

Cicero about age 60, from a marble

bust

As report ed by Seneca t he Elder, according t o t he hist orian Aufidius Bassus, Cicero's last words are
said t o have been:

Ego vero consisto. Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide
cervicem.
I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much
properly, sever this neck.[119]

He bowed t o his capt ors, leaning his head out of t he lit t er in a gladiat orial gest ure t o ease t he t ask.
By baring his neck and t hroat t o t he soldiers, he was indicat ing t hat he would not resist . According t o
Plut arch, Herennius first slew him, t hen cut off his head. On Ant ony's inst ruct ions his hands, which
had penned t he Philippics against Ant ony, were cut off as well; t hese were nailed along wit h his head
on t he Rost ra in t he Forum Romanum according t o t he t radit ion of Marius and Sulla, bot h of whom
had displayed t he heads of t heir enemies in t he Forum. Cicero was t he only vict im of t he
proscript ions who was displayed in t hat manner. According t o Cassius Dio, in a st ory oft en mist akenly
at t ribut ed t o Plut arch,[120] Ant ony's wife Fulvia t ook Cicero's head, pulled out his t ongue, and jabbed
it repeat edly wit h her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.[121]
Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his fat her's
deat h, t o a cert ain ext ent , when he announced t o t he Senat e Mark Ant ony's naval defeat at Act ium
in 31 BC by Oct avian.[122]

Oct avian is report ed t o have praised Cicero as a pat riot and a scholar of meaning in lat er t imes,
wit hin t he circle of his family.[123] However, it was Oct avian's acquiescence t hat had allowed Cicero
t o be killed, as Cicero was condemned by t he new t riumvirat e.[124]

Cicero's career as a st at esman was marked by inconsist encies and a t endency t o shift his posit ion in
response t o changes in t he polit ical climat e. His indecision may be at t ribut ed t o his sensit ive and
impressionable personalit y; he was prone t o overreact ion in t he face of polit ical and privat e
change.[125] "Would t hat he had been able t o endure prosperit y wit h great er self-cont rol, and
adversit y wit h more fort it ude!" wrot e C. Asinius Pollio, a cont emporary Roman st at esman and
hist orian.[126][127]

Personal life and family

Cicero married Terent ia probably at t he age of 27, in 79 BC. According t o t he upper-class mores of
t he day it was a marriage of convenience but last ed harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terent ia's
family was wealt hy, probably t he plebeian noble house of Terent i Varrones, t hus meet ing t he needs
of Cicero's polit ical ambit ions in bot h economic and social t erms. She had a half-sist er named Fabia,
who as a child had become a Vest al Virgin, a great honour. Terent ia was a st rong-willed woman and
(cit ing Plut arch) "t ook more int erest in her husband's polit ical career t han she allowed him t o t ake in
household affairs".[128]

In t he 50s BC, Cicero's let t ers t o Terent ia became short er and colder. He complained t o his friends
t hat Terent ia had bet rayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps t he marriage could not
out last t he st rain of t he polit ical upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it , and various ot her
disput es bet ween t he t wo. The divorce appears t o have t aken place in 51 BC or short ly before.[129]
In 46 or 45 BC,[130] Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his ward. It is t hought t hat
Cicero needed her money, part icularly aft er having t o repay t he dowry of Terent ia, who came from a
wealt hy family.[131]

Alt hough his marriage t o Terent ia was one of convenience, it is commonly known t hat Cicero held
great love for his daught er Tullia.[132] When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died aft er
having seemingly recovered from giving birt h t o a son in January, Cicero was st unned. "I have lost t he
one t hing t hat bound me t o life," he wrot e t o At t icus.[133] At t icus t old him t o come for a visit during
t he first weeks of his bereavement , so t hat he could comfort him when his pain was at it s great est .
In At t icus's large library, Cicero read everyt hing t hat t he Greek philosophers had writ t en about
overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeat s all consolat ion."[134] Caesar and Brut us, as well as Servius
Sulpicius Rufus, sent him let t ers of condolence.[135][136]

Cicero hoped t hat his son Marcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished
for a milit ary career. He joined t he army of Pompey in 49 BC, and aft er Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus
48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him t o At hens t o st udy as a disciple of t he
peripat et ic philosopher Krat ippos in 48 BC, but he used t his absence from "his fat her's vigilant eye"
t o "eat , drink, and be merry."[137] Aft er Cicero's deat h, he joined t he army of t he Liberatores but was
lat er pardoned by August us. August us's bad conscience for having given in t o Cicero's being put on
t he proscript ion list during t he Second Triumvirat e led him t o aid considerably Marcus Minor's career.
He became an augur and was nominat ed consul in 30 BC t oget her wit h August us. As such, he was
responsible for revoking t he honors of Mark Ant ony, who was responsible for t he proscript ion and
could in t his way t ake revenge. Lat er he was appoint ed proconsul of Syria and t he province of
Asia.[138]

Legacy

Henry VIII's childhood copy of De

Officiis , bearing the inscription in his
hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce
Henry"

Cicero has been t radit ionally considered t he mast er of Lat in prose, wit h Quint ilian declaring t hat
Cicero was "not t he name of a man, but of eloquence it self."[139] The English words Ciceronian
(meaning "eloquent ") and cicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name.[140][141] He is
credit ed wit h t ransforming Lat in from a modest ut ilit arian language int o a versat ile lit erary medium
capable of expressing abst ract and complicat ed t hought s wit h clarit y.[142] Julius Caesar praised
Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more import ant t o have great ly ext ended t he front iers of t he
Roman spirit t han t he front iers of t he Roman empire".[143] According t o John William Mackail,
"Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is t hat he creat ed t he language of t he civilized world, and
used t hat language t o creat e a st yle which ninet een cent uries have not replaced, and in some
respect s have hardly alt ered."[144]

Cicero was also an energet ic writ er wit h an int erest in a wide variet y of subject s, in keeping wit h t he
Hellenist ic philosophical and rhet orical t radit ions in which he was t rained. The qualit y and ready
accessibilit y of Ciceronian t ext s favored very wide dist ribut ion and inclusion in t eaching curricula, as
suggest ed by a graffit o at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".[145]

Cicero was great ly admired by influent ial Church Fat hers such as August ine of Hippo, who credit ed
Cicero's lost Hortensius for his event ual conversion t o Christ ianit y,[146] and St . Jerome, who had a
feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ " before t he
judgment seat .[147]

This influence furt her increased aft er t he Early Middle Ages in Europe, where more of his writ ings
survived t han any ot her Lat in aut hor. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writ ings on
nat ural law and innat e right s.[148]

Pet rarch's rediscovery of Cicero's let t ers provided t he impet us for searches for ancient Greek and
Lat in writ ings scat t ered t hroughout European monast eries, and t he subsequent rediscovery of
classical ant iquit y led t o t he Renaissance. Subsequent ly, Cicero became synonymous wit h classical
Lat in t o such an ext ent t hat a number of humanist scholars began t o assert t hat no Lat in word or
phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a st ance crit icised by Erasmus.[149]

His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed t o his friend At t icus, has been especially
influent ial, int roducing t he art of refined let t er writ ing t o European cult ure. Cornelius Nepos, t he first
cent ury BC biographer of At t icus, remarked t hat Cicero's let t ers cont ained such a wealt h of det ail
"concerning t he inclinat ions of leading men, t he fault s of t he generals, and t he revolut ions in t he
government " t hat t heir reader had lit t le need for a hist ory of t he period.[150]

Among Cicero's admirers were Desiderius Erasmus, Mart in Lut her, and John Locke.[151] Following t he
invent ion of Johannes Gut enberg's print ing press, De Officiis was t he second book print ed in Europe,
aft er t he Gut enberg Bible. Scholars not e Cicero's influence on t he rebirt h of religious t olerat ion in t he
17t h cent ury.[152]
Cicero was especially popular wit h t he Philosophes of t he 18t h cent ury, including Edward Gibbon,
Diderot , David Hume, Mont esquieu, and Volt aire.[153] Gibbon wrot e of his first experience reading t he
aut hor's collect ive works t hus: "I t ast ed t he beaut y of t he language; I breat hed t he spirit of
freedom; and I imbibed from his precept s and examples t he public and privat e sense of a man...aft er
finishing t he great aut hor, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more ext ensive plan of
reviewing t he Lat in classics..."[154]

Volt aire called Cicero "t he great est as well as t he most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even
st aged a play based on Cicero's role in t he Cat ilinarian conspiracy, called Rome Sauvée, ou Catilina ,
t o "make young people who go t o t he t heat re acquaint ed wit h Cicero."[155] Volt aire was spurred t o
pen t he drama as a rebuff t o his rival Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's own play Catilina , which
had port rayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocrit ically married his own daught er t o
Cat iline.[156]

Mont esquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on t he aut hor
because he rescued "philosophy from t he hands of scholars, and freed it from t he confusion of a
foreign language".[157] Mont esquieu went on t o declare t hat Cicero was "of all t he ancient s, t he one
who had t he most personal merit , and whom I would prefer t o resemble."[156][158]

Int ernat ionally, Cicero t he republican inspired t he Founding Fat hers of t he Unit ed St at es and t he
revolut ionaries of t he French Revolut ion.[159] John Adams said, "As all t he ages of t he world have not
produced a great er st at esman and philosopher unit ed t han Cicero, his aut horit y should have great
weight ."[160] Thomas Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who cont ribut ed t o
a t radit ion "of public right " t hat informed his draft of t he Declarat ion of Independence and shaped
American underst andings of "t he common sense" basis for t he right of revolut ion.[161] Camille
Desmoulins said of t he French republicans in 1789 t hat t hey were "most ly young people who,
nourished by t he reading of Cicero at school, had become passionat e ent husiast s for libert y".[162]

Jim Powell st art s his book on t he hist ory of libert y wit h t he sent ence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero
expressed principles t hat became t he bedrock of libert y in t he modern world."[163]

Likewise, no ot her ancient personalit y has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in
more modern t imes.[164] His commit ment t o t he values of t he Republic accommodat ed a hat red of
t he poor and persist ent opposit ion t o t he advocat es and mechanisms of popular represent at ion.[165]
Friedrich Engels referred t o him as "t he most cont empt ible scoundrel in hist ory" for upholding
republican "democracy" while at t he same t ime denouncing land and class reforms.[166] Cicero has
faced crit icism for exaggerat ing t he democrat ic qualit ies of republican Rome, and for defending t he
Roman oligarchy against t he popular reforms of Caesar.[167] Michael Parent i admit s Cicero's abilit ies
as an orat or, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocrit ical personalit y who, when it suit ed him, could
show public support for popular causes t hat he privat ely despised. Parent i present s Cicero's
prosecut ion of t he Cat iline conspiracy as legally flawed at least , and possibly unlawful.[168]

Cicero also had an influence on modern ast ronomy. Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views
on eart h mot ion, said t hat he "first ... found in Cicero t hat Hicet as supposed t he eart h t o move."[169]

Not ably, "Cicero" was t he name at t ribut ed t o size 12 font in t ypeset t ing t able drawers. For ease of
reference, t ype sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.[170]

Works

Marci Tullii Ciceronis Opera Omnia

(1566)

Cicero was declared a right eous pagan by t he Early Church,[171] and t herefore many of his works
were deemed wort hy of preservat ion. Subsequent Roman and medieval Christ ian writ ers quot ed
liberally from his works De re publica (On the Commonwealth) and De Legibus (On the Laws ), and
much of his work has been recreat ed from t hese surviving fragment s. Cicero also art iculat ed an
early, abst ract concept ualizat ion of right s, based on ancient law and cust om. Of Cicero's books, six
on rhet oric have survived, as well as part s of seven on philosophy.[172] Of his speeches, 88 were
recorded, but only 52 survive.[c][173]

In archaeology

Cicero's great reput e in It aly has led t o numerous ruins being ident ified as having belonged t o him,
t hough none have been subst ant iat ed wit h absolut e cert aint y. In Formia, t wo Roman-era ruins are
popularly believed t o be Cicero's mausoleum, t he Tomba di Cicerone, and t he villa where he was
assassinat ed in 43 BC. The lat t er building is cent ered around a cent ral hall wit h Doric columns and a
coffered vault , wit h a separat e nymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia.[174] A modern villa was
built on t he sit e aft er t he Rubino family purchased t he land from Ferdinand II of t he Two Sicilies in
1868. Cicero's supposed t omb is a 24-met er (79 feet ) t all t ower on an opus quadratum base on t he
ancient Via Appia out side of Formia. Some suggest t hat it is not in fact Cicero's t omb, but a
monument built on t he spot where Cicero was int ercept ed and assassinat ed while t rying t o reach
t he sea.[175]

In Pompeii, a large villa excavat ed in t he mid 18t h cent ury just out side t he Herculaneum Gat e was
widely believed t o have been Cicero's, who was known t o have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he
called his Pompeianum. The villa was st ripped of it s fine frescoes and mosaics and t hen re-buried
aft er 1763 – it has yet t o be re-excavat ed.[176] However, cont emporaneous descript ions of t he
building from t he excavat ors combined wit h Cicero's own references t o his Pompeianum differ,
making it unlikely t hat it is Cicero's villa.[177]

In Rome, t he locat ion of Cicero's house has been roughly ident ified from excavat ions of t he
Republican-era st rat um on t he nort hwest ern slope of t he Palat ine Hill.[178][179] Cicero's domus has
long been known t o have st ood in t he area, according t o his own descript ions and t hose of lat er
aut hors, but t here is some debat e about whet her it st ood near t he base of t he hill, very close t o t he
Roman Forum, or nearer t o t he summit .[178][180] During his life t he area was t he most desirable in
Rome, densely occupied wit h Pat rician houses including t he Domus Publica of Julius Caesar and t he
home of Cicero's mort al enemy Clodius.[181]

Notable fictional portrayals

In Dant e's 1320 poem t he Divine Comedy, t he aut hor encount ers Cicero, among ot her philosophers,
in Limbo.[182] Ben Jonson dramat ised t he conspiracy of Cat iline in his play Catiline His Conspiracy,
feat uring Cicero as a charact er.[183] Cicero also appears as a minor charact er in William Shakespeare's
play Julius Caesar.[184]

Cicero was port rayed on t he mot ion pict ure screen by Brit ish act or Alan Napier in t he 1953 film
Julius Caesar, based on Shakespeare's play.[185] He has also been played by such not ed act ors as
Michael Hordern (in Cleopatra ),[186] and André Morell (in t he 1970 Julius Caesar).[187] Most recent ly,
Cicero was port rayed by David Bamber in t he HBO series Rome (2005–2007) and appeared in bot h
seasons.[188]
In t he hist orical novel series Masters of Rome, Colleen McCullough present s a not -so-flat t ering
depict ion of Cicero's career, showing him st ruggling wit h an inferiorit y complex and vanit y, morally
flexible and fat ally indiscreet , while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light .[189]
Cicero is port rayed as a hero in t he novel A Pillar of Iron by Taylor Caldwell (1965). Robert Harris'
novels Imperium, Lustrum (published under t he name Conspirata in t he Unit ed St at es) and Dictator
comprise a t hree-part series based on t he life of Cicero. In t hese novels Cicero's charact er is
depict ed in a more favorable way t han in t hose of McCullough, wit h his posit ive t rait s equaling or
out weighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depict ed as more sinist er t han in
McCullough).[190] Cicero is a major recurring charact er in t he Roma Sub Rosa series of myst ery
novels by St even Saylor.[191] He also appears several t imes as a peripheral charact er in John Maddox
Robert s' SPQR series.[192]

Samuel Barnet t port rays Cicero in a 2017 audio drama series pilot produced by Big Finish
Product ions. A full series was released t he following year.[193] All episodes are writ t en by David
Llewellyn[194] and direct ed and produced by Scot t Handcock.[195]

Giancarlo Esposit o port rays Mayor Franklyn Cicero, a charact er from Francis Ford Coppola's 2024 sci-
fi epic film Megalopolis, which is a modern fut urist ic int erpret at ion of t he Cat iline Conspiracy. In t he
film, Esposit o st ars opposit e Adam Driver, who port rays a charact er named Cesar Cat ilina.[196]

See also

Caecilia At t ica
Ancient Rome portal

Caecilia Met ella (daught er of Celer)

Civis romanus sum

Clausula (rhet oric)

A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions

E pluribus unum

Esse quam videri

Ipse dixit

List of ancient Romans

Lorem ipsum

Marcant onius Majoragio

 Marcus Tullius Tiro

Marius Nizolius

Ot ium

Socratici viri

Tempest in a t eapot

Translat ion

Notes

a. The name is infrequent ly anglicized as Tully[3] (/ˈt ʌli/ TUL -ee).

b. Wiedemann describes t he senat us consult um ult imum by t he lat e republic as "lit t le more t han a
fig-leaf by t hose who could must er a majorit y in t he senat e ... t o legit imat e t he use of force".[60]

c. Sources vary, but seem t o indicat e t hat 52 survived in whole and 6 more in part

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ey*.ht ml) . Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 5. Translat ed by Perrin, Bernadot t e. 1917 [2nd cent ury
AD]. OCLC 40115288 (ht t ps://search.worldcat .org/oclc/40115288) . Archived (ht t ps://web.a
rchive.org/web/20080420154411/ht t p://www.perseus.t uft s.edu/cgi-bin/pt ext ?lookup=Cic.+
Q.+fr.+2.3) from t he original on 20 April 2008. Ret rieved 26 November 2023 – via
LacusCurt ius.

Life of Sulla (ht t p://dat a.perseus.org/t ext s/urn:ct s:greekLit :t lg0007.t lg033.perseus-eng1) .
Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 4. Translat ed by Perrin, Bernadot t e. 1916 [2nd cent ury AD].
OCLC 40115288 (ht t ps://search.worldcat .org/oclc/40115288) . Archived (ht t ps://web.archiv
e.org/web/20240619070053/ht t p://www.perseus.t uft s.edu/hopper/t ext ?doc=urn:ct s:greekL
it :t lg0007.t lg033.perseus-eng1) from t he original on 19 June 2024. Ret rieved 26 November
2023 – via Perseus Digit al Library.

External links

Works by Cicero Library resources about

Cice ro
 Works by Cicero at Perseus Digit al Library (ht t p://cat alog.pers
Online books (https://ftl.toolfor
eus.org/cat alog/urn:cit e:perseus:aut hor.364) ge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ci
cero&library=OLBP)
Works by Cicero in eBook form (ht t ps://st andardebooks.org/e Resources in your library (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?
books/cicero) at St andard Ebooks
st=wp&su=Cicero)
Resources in other libraries (htt
Works by Cicero (ht t ps://www.gut enberg.org/ebooks/aut hor/1 ps://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ft
28) at Project Gut enberg l?st=wp&su=Cicero&library=0CH
OOSE0)
Works by or about Cicero (ht t ps://archive.org/search.php?quer By Cice ro
y=%28%28subject %3A%22Cicero%22%20OR%20creat or%3 Online books (https://ftl.toolfor
ge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Ci
A%22Cicero%22%20OR%20descript ion%3A%22Cicero%22%20 cero&library=OLBP)
OR%20t it le%3A%22Cicero%22%29%20OR%20%28%22106-4 Resources in your library (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?
3%22%20AND%20Cicero%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediat yp at=wp&au=Cicero)
e:soft ware%29) at t he Int ernet Archive Resources in other libraries (htt
ps://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ft
Works by Cicero (ht t ps://librivox.org/aut hor/3336) at l?at=wp&au=Cicero&library=0CH
OOSE0)
LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Works by Cicero (ht t ps://www.st oict herapy.com/elibrary#cicero) at t he St oic Therapy eLibrary

The Lat in Library (Lat in): Works of Cicero (ht t p://www.t helat inlibrary.com/cic.ht ml)

Dickinson College Comment aries: Against Verres 2.1.53–86 (ht t p://dcc.dickinson.edu/cicero-verre

s/preface-and-acknowledgement s)

Dickinson College Comment aries: On Pompey's Command (De Imperio) 27–49 (ht t p://dcc.dickinso
n.edu/cicero-de-imperio/preface-and-acknowledgment s)

Horace MS 1b Laelius de Amicit ia at OPenn (ht t p://openn.library.upenn.edu/Dat a/0023/ht ml/horac

e_ ms_ 1b.ht ml)

Lewis E 66 Epist olae ad familiares (Let t ers t o friends) (ht t p://openn.library.upenn.edu/Dat a/0023/
ht ml/lewis_ e_ 066.ht ml)

Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time

Plut arch's biography of Cicero cont ained in t he Parallel Lives

Life of Cicero by Ant hony Trollope, Volume I & Volume II

Cicero by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (Ancient Classics for English Readers )

Roman life in the days of Cicero by Rev. Alfred J. Church

Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero by W. Warde Fowler

"At Heraklia websit e" (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20060114090741/ht t p://www.heraklia.fws1.co
m/cont emporaries/cicero/) . Archived from t he original (ht t p://www.heraklia.fws1.com/cont empo
raries/cicero/) on 14 January 2006. Ret rieved 31 March 2017.

Dryden's t ranslat ion of Cicero from Plut arch's Parallel Lives (ht t p://classics.mit .edu/Plut arch/cicer
o.ht ml)

At Middlebury College websit e (ht t p://communit y.middlebury.edu/~harris/Lat inAut hors/Cicero.ht

ml)

Raphael Woolf. "Cicero" (ht t ps://plat o.st anford.edu/ent ries/cicero/) . In Zalt a, Edward N. (ed.).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.