lOMoAR cPSD| 4438294

EXPERIMENT NO: 01

Aim: To Study of compound microscope.

Reference: Dr. Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Dr. Sharma Rahul Kumar, “Practical Manual of
Human Anatomy and Physiology” Published by Nirali Prakashan, Page No.1 – 3.

Requirement: compound microscope

Theory:
Compound microscope:
A compound microscope is an instrument that is used to view magnified images of small objects on a
glass slide. It can achieve higher levels of magnification than stereo or other low-power microscopes and
reduce chromatic aberration
Compound microscope parts:
It is used to view smaller specimens such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of
magnification. Essentially, a compound microscope consists of structural and optical components.
However, within these two basic systems, there are some

Structural components: The three basic, structural components of a compound microscope are the head,
base and arm.

• Head/Body houses the optical parts in the upper part of the microscope
• The base of the microscope supports the microscope and houses the illuminator
• The arm connects to the base and supports the microscope head. It is also used to
carry themicroscope.

When carrying a compound microscope always take care to lift it by both the arm and base,
simultaneously

OPTICAL COMPONENTS:

There are two optical systems in a compound microscope: Eyepiece Lenses and Objective Lenses:

• Eyepiece or Ocular is what you look through at the top of the microscope. Typically, standard
eyepieces have a magnifying power of 10x. Optional eyepieces of varying powers are available,
typically from 5x30x.
• Eyepiece Tube holds the eyepieces in place above the objective lens. Binocular microscope
heads typically incorporate a diopter adjustment ring that allows for the possible inconsistencies
of our eyesight in one or both eyes.
• Objective Lenses: are the primary optical lenses on a microscope. They range from 4x-100x and
typically, include, three, four, or five on lens on most microscopes. Objectives can be forward or
rear-facing.
• Nosepiece The objectives are exposed and are mounted on a rotating turret so that different
objectives include 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x although different power objectives are available.
• Coarse and Fine Focus knobs are used to focus the microscope. Increasingly, they are coaxial
knobs - that is to say, they are built on the same axis with the fine focus knob on the outside.

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 • Stage is where the specimen to be viewed is placed. A mechanical stage is used when working at
higher magnifications where delicate movements of the specimen slide are required.

• Stage Clips The viewer is required to move the slide manually to view different sections of the
specimen.
• Aperture is the hole in the stage through which the base (transmitted) light reaches the stage.
• Illuminator is the light source for a microscope, typically located in the base of the microscope.
• Condenser is used to collect and focus the light from the illuminator on to the specimen. It is
located under the stage often in conjunction with an iris diaphragm.
• Iris Diaphragm controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the
condenser and below the stage
• Condenser Focus Knob moves the condenser up or down to control the lighting focus on the
specimen.
Result: The microscope parts were studied.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-02

Aim: To study the microscopic structure of epithelial and connective tissue.

Reference: - Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “practical manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’, Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, page no.-46-49
Theory: Connective tissue: A material made up of fibers forming a framework and support structure for
body tissues and organs. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. Cartilage and bone are specialized
forms of connective tissue. All connective tissue is derived from mesoderm, the middle germ cell layer
in the embryo.
Types of Connective Tissue
Connective tissues encompass a diverse array of tissue types that are involved in binding and
supporting body structure and tissues.
Connective tissue is divided into five main categories:
1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Cartilage
4. Bone tissue
5. Liquid connective tissue
1. Loose connective tissue: is divided into three
types

1) Areolar (support and binding of other tissues)

2) Adipose or (Body Fat)
3) Reticular such as internal frameworks that can support lymph nodes, spleen, and bone
marrow.
2. Dense Regular Connective Tissue is divided into
Dense regular,
Dense irregular,
Elastic connective tissue
3. Cartilage This is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and
other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the
knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes.

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 Cartilage is classified in three types:
• Elastic cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
• Fibrocartilage
1) Bone tissue: It is mostly formed of calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement
termed calcium hydroxyapatite. Its porosity is 5–30%. This tissue gives bones their
smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an
adult skeleton.
5) liquid connective tissue:
Blood tissue: Blood is a bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances, such as
nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same
cells.

Epithelial tissue:
(Epithel –covering, lay on) Epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets in
single or multiple layers; it is the lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body. Epithelial
tissue plays different roles in the body like protection, filtration, secretion, absorption, and
excretion there are the following three types of epithelial tissues.

1. Simple Epithelium: it contains a single layer of cells and is of four types:

(a) Simple squamous epithelium: the processes of filtration or diffusion occur.
(b) Simple cuboidal epithelium: This epithelium is found in organs such as the thyroid
gland and kidneys. It performs the functions of secretion and absorption.
(c) Simple columnar epithelium: These play a role in absorption and secretion. Simple
columnar epithelium cells can be ciliated (containing hair on the surface).
(d) Pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium: In pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar
epithelium, the cells secrete mucous or bear cilia. Pseudo-stratifies non-ciliated
columnar epithelium contains cells without cilia and lacks mucous cells.
2. Stratified Epithelium: it is main four types:
(a) Stratified squamous epithelium: This type of epithelium is generally present in
theskin, the wet lining of the mouth, the esophagus, and the tongue.
(b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium Stratified cuboidal epithelium serves a role in
protection, secretion, and absorption.
(c) Stratifies columnar epithelium Present in ducts of glands and conjunctiva of eye.
(d) Transitional epithelium: Transitional epithelium is present only in the urinary
system It allows the urinary bladder to stretch to hold a variable amount of fluid
without rupturing.

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 (e) Glandular epithelium: the function of glandular epithelium is
secretion. All glands of the body are classified as either endocrine
or exocrine.
i- Endocrine Glands: (endo-inside; crine-secretion) These are the
glands whose secretions (hormones) The pituitary, thyroid,
and adrenal glands are examples of endocrine glands.

Exocrine glands: The secretions of exocrine glands include mucous,

sweat, oil, ear wax, saliva, and digestive enzymes. Examples of exocrine
glands include sudoriferous (sweat) glands, which produce sweat to help
lower body temperature, and salivary glands, which secrete saliva.
Result: - The epithelial and connective tissue was studied

Fig. Type of Epithelial

Tissue

Fig: Type of Connective Tissue

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Aim: Microscopic study of muscular and nervous tissue.
Reference:
➢ Dr. Goyal R. K, Dr. Patel N. M., “Practical Anatomy and Physiology”,
13th Ed.2009, B. S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad, Page No.:106-108
➢ Dr. Prashad M., Dr. Kumar Jha, “Practical Book of Human Anatomy &
Physiology I”, Nirali Prakashan, Page No.:3.1-3.4

Theory:
1. Muscles
Origin: - Most of the muscle tissue develops from mesoderm that gives rise to
mesenchymal cells. Skeletal muscle develops from paraxial mesoderm, organized
into myotomes in somites. Muscles of the head develop from mesenchyme of
brachial arches. Cardiac muscle develops from cardiogenic mesoderm. Smooth
muscle develops from splanchnic mesoderm - except for the iris where smooth
muscle arises from neuroectoderm.
Muscle function:
➢ Contraction for locomotion and skeletal movement
➢ Contraction for propulsion
➢ Contraction for pressure regulation

Muscle classification:
Muscle tissue is excitable and contractile (it shortens forcefully). muscle tissue may
be classified according to a morphological classification or a functional
classification.
Morphological classification (based on structure):
There are two types of muscle based on the morphological classification system:
a. Striated
b. Nonstriated or smooth.

Functional classification:
There are two types of muscle based on a functional classification system:
a. Voluntary
b. Involuntary.

Types of muscle:
There are generally considered to be three types of muscle in the human body.
a. Skeletal muscle: striated and voluntary
b. Cardiac muscle: striated and involuntary
c. Smooth muscle: non-striated and involunta

a. Skeletal Muscle:
A typical muscle cell is a highly modified, giant, multi-nucleated cell.

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 Characteristics of skeletal muscle:
The cells (running vertically) are long, straight, striated, and multinucleated.
Skeletal muscle cells are elongated or tubular (cylindrical). The individual cells can
be as long as the muscle itself. As the muscle length increases, the individual cells
get ready to divide, and double their cytoplasmic contents including the nucleus, but
they do not complete cytokinesis. They have multiple nuclei and these nuclei are
located on the periphery of the cell, situated just below the sarcolemma.
Skeletal muscle has an alternating pattern of light and dark bands that results from
the arrangement of myofibrils, and small protein contractile units embedded in the
sarcoplasm which gives a “cross-striped” or striated appearance to the cell.
Function:
Contraction - voluntary and rapid body movement, muscle tissue in the tongue
(speech, mixing of food), breathing, voice
b. Cardiac Muscle:
The cells are much more branching than skeletal muscle but are still striated. The
key feature is the dark lines that run across the tissue between cells. These are
intercalated discs and are only found in cardiac muscle.
Contraction - involuntary; rapid and rhythmic- in the heart (myocardium)
Characteristics:
Cardiac muscle cells are not as long as skeletal muscles cells and often are branched
cells. Cardiac muscle cells may be mononucleated or binucleated. In either case, the
nuclei are located centrally in the cell. Cardiac muscle is also striated. In addition,
cardiac muscle contains intercalated discs (connecting adjacent cardiac muscle cells
are specialized cellular junctions called intercalated discs which are darker pink than
the striations seen throughout the cytoplasm of the cardiac muscle cell).
Cardiac muscle cells – 3 types of Contractile cells
Impulse generating and conducting cells (initiate heartbeat)
Myoendocrine cells (production of hormone for regulation of Na+, K + & water
balance)
c. Smooth Muscle:
The striations are not present (thus the name) and that the cells are flattened and
stretched out (spindle-shaped).
Function:
Contraction is involuntary; weak and slow - in the wall of hollow organs (stomach,
small intestine).
Characteristics of Smooth muscle:
The smooth muscle cell is described as spindle-shaped. That is, they are wide in the
middle and narrow to almost a point at both ends. Smooth muscle cells are not nearly
as long as skeletal muscle fibers (cells). Smooth muscle cells have a single centrally
located nucleus. Oval or rod-shaped nuclei in the center. Nuclei stained darker
within individual smooth muscle cell cytoplasm.
Smooth muscle cells (cytoplasm) do not have visible striations although they do
contain the same contractile proteins as skeletal and cardiac muscle, these proteins
are just laid out in a different pattern.

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Muscle terminology
myofiber or myocyte: a muscle cell.

Sarcolemma: the plasma membrane of a muscle cell Sarcoplasm: the cytoplasm of

the muscle cell
Sarcoplasmic reticulum: the endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell Sarcosome:
the mitochondria of a muscle cell
Sarcomere: the contractile or functional unit of muscle
2. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of neurons and their supporting cells (glial cells or
neuroglia). Neurons (Nerve cells) are specialized cells that conduct electrical
impulses called an action potential across its length.
All neurons have the same basic structure:
Dendrites extend from the cell body (dendron - Greek for tree). These are fairly
short, with lots of branches, and they are the points at which nerve impulses are
received by the cell.
The cell body(perikaryon): includes cytoplasm & nucleus. Most of the cell bodies
of neurons are in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), or in the ganglia
(which lie just outside the spinal cord) of the peripheral nervous system.
Nucleus: The nuclei are large, highly visible, & often you will find the nucleolus
within the nucleus that looks like an ‘owl’s eye’.
The axon: a single nerve 'fiber' which transmits impulses to the distal end. Axons
can be very long - around 1 meter, and vary in diameter from 0.2 to 20 µm. It is the
largest process attached to the neuron’s cell body.
Axons in the periphery are never "naked." They always have some form of
covering, which is the product of the activities of the Schwann cell (or, in the central
nervous system, the oligodendrocyte). Two forms of this "insulation" exist. The first
type is a very elaborate multi-layered covering of plasma membrane, a thick and
efficient barrier to charge leakage, easily seen with the light microscope. This is a
myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is made by Schwann cells in the peripheral
nervous system and by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. Axons with
such a covering are referred to as myelinated. In axons of equal size, the rate of
conduction of a signal is much higher when there's a myelin sheath. Myelination
prevents leakage of membrane charge into the surrounding intercellular space.
People often use the terms "neuron" and "nerve" interchangeably, but this is
incorrect. A "nerve" is a grossly visible anatomic structure, and is a bundle of axonal
processes from many different neurons, wrapped in a connective tissue sheath. A
"neuron" is a cell, one part of which is included in a nerve.

There are three basic shapes to neurons:

Bipolar (single axon and single dendrite) - special neurons in the sensory
pathways for sight, smell, and balance.
Pseudo-unipolar (single axon and dendrite arise from a common stem) - the

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primary general sensory neurons are usually pseudo-unipolar.
Multipolar (the commonest) - most motor neurons are multipolar.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim: - To study the human anatomy and physiology of t h e human axial skeleton

Reference: Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second

edition, August 2017, page no. 2-5

Requirements: - artificial human skeleton bones

Theory: - skeletal system. The framework of the body, consisting of bones and other
connective tissues, protects and supports the body tissues and internal organs. The human
skeleton contains 206 bones, The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton.

axial skeleton: - The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the
head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 80 bones and is composed of
six parts; the skull bones, the Ear ossicles the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the
vertebral column.

1) Skull (22): - The skull can be divided into two-part cranium and facial bone.

i) Cranium Bone (08)

• Sphenoid bone-1
• Temporal bone-2
• Occipital bone-1
• Parietal bone-2
• Facial bone-1
• Ethmoid bone-1

ii)Facial Bone(14)
• Palatine bone- 2
• Lacrimal- 2
• Zygomatic- 2
• Maxilla- 2
• Nasal- 2
• Mandible - 1
• Vomer-1
• Chonchae-2

2) Hyoid bone (01)

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3) Ear ossicles (6)
• Malleus- 2
• Incus- 2
• Stapes-2

4) Ribs cage (24)

• True ribs 1-7

• False ribs 8-10

• Floating ribs 11-12

5) Sternum (01)

6) Vertebral column (26)

• Cervical spine-7

• Thoracic spine-12

• Lumber spine- 5

• Scrum- 1

• coccyx- 1

Result: the human axial skeleton and bone was studied.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

Aim: - To Identification of human anatomy and physiology of appendicular bones.

Reference: Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017,page no.-2-5

Requirements: - artificial human skeleton bones

Theory: - skeletal system. The framework of the body, consisting of bones and other
connective tissues, protects and supports the body tissues and internal organs. The human
skeleton contains 206 bones, six of which are the tiny bones of the middle ear (three in each
ear) that function in hearing.

The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Appendicular skeleton: -The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of

vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. The appendicular skeleton
includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdle.
GIRGLE (6)

Pectoral/Shoulder Girdle (4)

• Clavicle-2
• Scapula-2

Pelvic girdle or hip bone (2)

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Limbs (120)
Upper limbs (30+30)

• Humerus-1

• Radius+ ulna-2

• Carpals-8

• Metacarpals-5

• Phalanges-14

Lower limbs (30+30)

• Femur-1

• Patella-1

• Tibia+ fibula-2

• Tarsals-7

• Metatarsals-5

• Phalanges-14

Result: the human appendicular skeleton and bone were studied.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 06

Aim: -To determine the bleeding time of the body.

Reference: -Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI prakashan, second edition August
2017, page no-63

Requirements: Needle, spirit, cotton, filter paper.

Theory: Bleeding time is a medical test that measures how fast small blood vessels in the skin
stop bleeding. The bleeding time test is used to evaluate how well a person's blood is clotting.
The test evaluates how long it takes the vessels cut to constrict and how long it takes for platelets
in the blood to seal off the hole.

Procedure:
1. Clean the fingertip with the help of a spirit swab.
2. And wait for some time for the alcohol to dry Otherwise the result can be bad.
3. After that prick the finger with the help of a needle.
4. Note the time or start stopwatch.
5. Wipe the blood from the bleeding point with filter paper every 15 seconds until the bleeding
stops.
6. Note the time taken to stop bleeding.
7. The normal value is 2-4 minutes. this is a duck method

Result: The bleeding time was found to be ..................... second

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 07

Aim: To determination clotting time of the blood.

Reference:
1. Bhise S.B., Yadav A.V., Human Anatomy & Physiology, 16th Edition
Nirali Prakashan, 41jogeshwari Mandir Lane Pune, 2006, Page No. 180-
181.
2. Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition
August 2017, page No-63

Requirements: Capillary Tube, Stop Watch, Cotton Swab, Spirit, Pricking Needle.

Theory:
➢ Blood clotting results from a series of enzymatic reactions in the blood and prevents
excessive bleeding after injury.
➢ Blood coagulation is part of an important host defense mechanism known as
hemostasis.
➢ The time required for blood clotting to begin in a capillary tube is normally 2 to 8
minutes.
➢ It is prolonged in hemophilia and the presence of obstructive jaundice,
➢ Some anemia and leukemia, and some of the infectious diseases.
➢ Coagulation time three times normal is a danger sign.
Procedure:
I method
1. Prick The finger and note the time.
2. Draw a small amount of blood in the capillary tube
3. Break the tube at the end of every 30 seconds.
4. Note the time when a clot is seen fibrin between the two
endsof time.
5. Normal value is 4-8 minutes.
II method
1. Prick The finger and note the time.
2. Draw a small amount of blood into the slide
3.Will pick up blood through the needle every 30 seconds
4. Note the time when the thread-like fiber starts appearing.
5. Normal value is 2-7 minutes.

Result: The clotting time was found to be ....... second.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-08

Aim: To estimate the amount of hemoglobin in the given blood sample by Sahli's
haemoglobinometer.
Reference: - Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, page no.-56-5
Requirement: Sahli's haemoglobinometer, needle, cotton spirit.
Principle:
Hemoglobin is converted into acid hematin by the addition of N/10 HCI.
A brown color appears, this brown color is compared with the standard brown glass
reference blocks. Acid hematin formation depends upon the amount of hemoglobin
present in a blood sample.

Theory:
Each RBC contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules. A hemoglobin molecule consistsof
a protein called globin, composed of four polypeptide chains (two alpha and two beta chains) and
a ring-like non-protein called a heme is bound to each of the four chains. At the center of each
heme ring is an iron ion (Fe) that can combine reversibly with one oxygen molecule, allowing
each hemoglobin molecule to bind four oxygen molecules. Each oxygen molecule picked up
from the lungs is bound to an iron ion. As blood flows through tissue capillaries, the iron-oxygen
reaction reverses. Hemoglobin releases oxygen, which diffuses first into the interstitial fluid and
then into cells.

Normal range: - Males = 14 to 18 gm/dl

Females = 13 to 14 gm/dl
Children = 10 to 13 gm/dl
Procedure:
1. Place N/10 hydrochloric acid in a graduated tube up to the lowest marking
2. Clean the tip of the finger with cotton soaked in spirit.
3. Take a sterile lancet and make a sharp prick.
4. Wait for some time until a full drop is formed.
5. Draw blood in Sahli's pipette up to 20 µl mark.
6. Care must be taken to avoid air bubbles.
7. Then pour the blood into the Hb tube, and wait for some time for the acid to react
with Hb andchange into acid hematin, A Brown color is formed.
8. Then add distilled water drop by drop. Mix well until the color matches with the
comparatorrack.
9. The level of liquid is noted at its lowest meniscus and the reading corresponding to its
level of scale is read in g/100 ml in percentage.

Result: -The hemoglobin given blood sample was found to be .... gm/dl.

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17
 EXPERIMENT NO. 09
Aim: - To determination of blood group our body.

Reference: Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, Page No. 55
Theory:
The surfaces of erythrocytes contain a genetically determined assortment of antigens composed of
glycoproteins and glycolipids. These antigens, called agglutinogens, occur in characteristic
combinations. Based on the presence or absence of various antigens, blood is categorized into
different blood groups. Within a given blood group, there may be two or more different blood
types. Two major blood groups are ABO and Rh. ABO Blood Group: The ABO blood group is
based on two glycolipids antigens called A and B. A person whose RBCs display only antigen A
has type A blood. Those who have only antigen B are type B. Individuals who have both A and B
antigens are type AB; those who have neither antigen A nor B are type O.
Blood plasma usually contains antibodies called agglutinins that react with the A or 8 antigens if
the two are mixed. These are the anti-A antibody, which reacts with antigen A, and the anti-B
antibody, which reacts with antigen B.
Requirements: Glass slides, anti-A, anti-B, anti-Rh, small glass rod stirrers, cotton swab, spirit,
pricking needle.
Procedure:
1. Three glasses were washed slides properly with soap solution clean them with the help
ofaclean cloth; mark them as A, B, and D.
2. The fingertips are sterilized with the help of alcoholic cotton swabs
3. Prick the fingertip with the help of a needle, squeeze the finger, and put one blood dropon
each glass slide in the center.
4. Then add antisera-A to the first slide.
5. Then add anti-B to the second slide.
6.Then add anti-Rh(D) to the last slide.
7. Mix all three slides carefully with the help of small glass rods. 8.
Slightly rotate the slides one by one and note the observations.

Result: The blood group was found to be.........

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19
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

Object: To determine the ESR (Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate) of blood

Reference: Bhise S.B. Yadav A.V. Human Anatomy & Physiology 16th Edition Nirali
Prakashan 41, Jogeshwari Mandir Lane Pune, 2006, Page No. 171-172.
Requirement: glass rod, pipettes, cotton swab, spirit, disposable syringe.
Theory:
➢ ESR stands for erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
➢ It is a nonspecific screening test that indirectly measures how much inflammation is in the body.
➢ The test can be used to monitor inflammatory or cancerous diseases.
➢ It is a screening test, which means it cannot be used to diagnose a specific disorder.
➢ It is useful in detecting and monitoring tuberculosis, tissue death, certain forms of arthritis,
autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases that cause vague symptoms.
Normal results
Adults (wintrobe's method):
➢ Men under 50 years old: 0-9mm/hr
➢ Women under 50 years old: 0-20 mm/hr
*NOTE: mm/hr= millimeters per hour
Abnormal results:
1. An increased ESR rate may be due to anemia, kidney disease, pregnancy, rheumatic fever,
rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, tuberculosis, other inflammatory conditions, etc.
2. Very high ESR levels occur with hyperfibrinogenemia (increased fibrinogen levels in the
blood), macroglobulinemia – primary, etc.
3. Lower-than-normal levels occur with hyperfibrinogenemia (decreased fibrinogen levels), low
plasma protein (due to liver or kidney disease), sickle cell anemia, etc.
Procedure:
1. Clean the site of blood collection with spirit
2. Warp an elastic band around the upper arm
3. A needle was gently inserted into the vein.
4. Collect 2 ml blood and transfer it into an airtight vial or tube.
5. Gently invert tubes containing an additive 5-8 times.
6. Fill blood up to the mark o in the special pipette-like tube (wintrobe's tube)
7. Note down the mark up to which the red blood cells fall in a tube in one hour.

Result: To determine the ESR was found to be .............. mm/hr.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

Aim: To Determination of heart rate and pulse rate.

Reference:

1. Bhise S.B., Yadav A.V., Human Anatomy & Physiology, 16th Edition, Nirali
Prakashan, 41jogeshwari Mandir Lane Pune, 2006, Page No. 181-182.
2. Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition
August 2017, Page No-77

Requirement: Stopwatch, Stethoscope

Theory: Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time. Usually, heart rate is
expressed as beats per minute (BPM). The heart beats to supply oxygenated clean blood from the
left ventricle to the blood vessels of the body via the aorta. The normal values of radial pulse for
an infant are 130 beats/min., for an normal adult will be around 70-100 beats/min. It pumps
about 55-80 ml of blood with each beat
for adults

Types of Pulse rate checking position

Abnormal results:
• consistently high Pulse rates (tachycardia).
• Pulse rates that were below the normal values (bradycardia).
• An irregular pulse was also indicating a problem (arrhythmia).

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• A pulse that was hard to feel may indicate blockages in the artery. These blockages were
common in people with diabetes or atherosclerosis from high cholesterol.

Procedure:

1. To measure the pulse at the wrist (radial pulse), place the index and middle finger over the
underside of the opposite wrist, below the base of the thumb. Press firmly with a flat finger
until you feel the pulse.
2. To measure the pulse on the neck (carotid pulse), place the index and middle finger just to
the side of the adam9s apple, in the soft, hollow area. Press firmly until you locate the pulse.
3. Count the beats you feel for 15 seconds. Multiply this number by 4 to get your heart rate
(pulse) per minute.

Result: The radial pulse was found....................beat/min.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 12

Aim: To determine the Blood pressure of a subject

Reference: -
1. Bhise S.B., Yadav A.V., Human Anatomy & Physiology, 16th Edition Nirali
Prakashan, 41 Jogeshwari Mandir Lane Pune, 2006, Page No. 170-180.
2. Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition
August 2017, Page No. 81

Requirement: Sphygmomanometer, stethoscope

Theory:
The heart alternatively contracts and relaxes, the and off-flow of blood into the arteries causes
the B.P. to rise and fall during each beat. Thus, two arterials B.P. measurements are usually made
1. Systolic pressure -
2. Diastolic pressure -
Blood pressure is reported in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), with the systolic pressure written
first as 120/80 translates to a systolic pressure of 120 mmHg and a diastolic pressure of 80
mm/hg. The average systolic blood pressure in a healthy adult is 100-140 mm Hg, the
average diastolic blood pressure is 80-100 mm Hg. The average pulse pressure is about 30-50
mm Hg. Two methods are used to measure blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer,which
are:
A. Palpatory method (feeling pulse).
B. Auscultatory method (hearing pulse).
Procedure:
1. Ask the subject to sit or lie down comfortably on the couch. Tie the cuff of the
sphygmomanometer around the arm.

2. Feel the artery and mark its course in the cubital fossa. Also, feel and mark the
radialpulse at the place where it is felt well.

3. Place the manometer by the side of the subject, between his arm and the body.
4. Tight the screw of the rubber pump and press the pump to inflate the bag inflate to raise
the mercury of 200 mm level.

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 5. Keep the eyes fixed at mercury level and the finger at the pulse slowly release pressure
by unscrewing the valve of the rubber pump. The reading of the level of mercury when
the pulse reappears gives the systolic pressure. This is a palpatory method. This method
does not give any idea about diastolic pressure.

6. In the auscultatory method, after inflation as usual, the chest piece of the stethoscope is
place over the brachial artery in the cubital fossa and started by slowly releasing the
pressure. The pressure at which a sudden tap is heard is the systolic pressure. The sound
gets muffled and disappears. The level at which the sound gets muffled is the diastolic
pressure. The sound heard is called the Korotkoff sound.

Result- To record the Blood pressure was observed........mmHg systolic pressure .... mmHg
diastolic pressure.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 13

Aim: To determine the vital capacity by using spirometer.

Reference: Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, Page No.85

Requirement: Spirometer.

Theory: A spirometer is used to determine different types of lung volumes and lung capacities. Vital
capacity is the sum of tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and Inspiratory reserve volume. It is
approximately 4800 ml in males and 3100 ml in females. The instrument used to measure vital capacity
iscalled a spirometer.

Procedure:

➢ Bring the drum to its lowest portion by gently pushing it

down. Adjust the pointer needle to zero which indicates that
the bell is empty.
➢ After that clean the mouth pies of the spirometer with water.
➢ Will draw more and more fresh air inspiration in the lungs.
➢ Then keep the nostrils closed, and expel all the air that
can bedone with maximum effort into the spirometer.
➢ After the pointer needle shows the volume of expired air.
➢ Note the reading on the spirometer

Result: The vital capacity was found to be............ Ml.

26
 EXPERIMENT NO-14

Aim: Enumeration of white blood cell (WBC) count.

Reference: Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, page no.-59
Requirement: WBCs pipette, Neubauer counting chamber, cover slip. WBC counting fluid,
blood and microscope.

Theory:
White blood cells or leukocytes (leuko-white, cyte cell) have nuclei and do not contain
hemoglobin. WBCs are classified as either Granular or Agranular, depending on whether they
contain cytoplasmic granules that are made visible by staining when viewed through a light
microscope. Granular leukocytes include Eosinophils, Basophils, and Neutrophils whereas
Agranular leukocytes include Lymphocytes and Monocytes. There are 5000-10000 WBCs
present per µl of blood.
Normal range: -
Adult - 4000-11000/mm3 of blood
Newborn - 10000-25000/mm3
Infants - 6000-12000/ mm3
Children-5000-15000/mm3blood
number of white blood cells per cubic mm of undiluted whole blood is calculated.

Procedure:
1. Sterilize the fingertip with spirit.
2. Make a prick with a lancet and suck the blood using a WBC pipette up to 0.5 mark
3. Excess blood sticking to the tip of the pipette is wiped out immediately
4. Draw diluted fluid up to 11 marks.
5. Rotate the pipette between thumb and forefinger for one minute.
6 Discard the first few drops.
7. Place the counting chamber on the stage of the microscope.
8. Apply the cover slip over the Neubauer rulings.
9. Apply a drop of fluid by just touching the edge of the chamber.
10. Wait for 5 minutes for the cells to settle down.
11. Count the WBCs over four big cover squares under 10X and calculate the WBCs in 1 ml.

Result: To determine the WBC was found to be ........cell/micro ltr.

27
28
 EXPERIMENT NO-15

Aim: Enumeration of total red blood corpuscles (RBC) count.

Reference: - Gupta G. D, Dr. Sharma Shailesh, Singh harsimran “Practical Manual of HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY’’ Published by NIRALI Prakashan, second edition August
2017, pages no.-60-61

Requirement: RBCs pipette, Neubauer counting chamber, cover slip RBCs counting fluid,
blood and microscope.

Theory: Theory: Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes (erythro red; cyte cell) are biconcave
discs with a diameter of 7-8 um. These contain the oxygen carrying protein hemoglobin, which is
a pigment that gives whole blood its red color. RBCs lack a nucleus and other organelles and can
neither reproduce nor carry on extensive metabolic activities. They have strong and flexible
plasma membrane, which allows them to deform without rupturing as they squeeze through
narrow capillaries. A healthy adult male has about 5.4 million red blood cells per micro-liter (ul)
of blood and a healthy adult female has about 4.8 million red blood cells.

Procedure:

1. Sterilize the figure tip with spirit.

2. Make a prick with a lancet and suck the blood using a WBC pipette up to 0.5 mark.
3. Excess of blood sticking to the tip of the pipette is wipe out immediately.
4. Draw diluted fluid up to 11 marks.
5. Diluted fluid is Either formalin citrate or Hayems fluid.
6. Rotate the pipette between thumbs and four fingers for one minute.
7. Discard the first few drops
8. Place the counting chamber on the stage of the microscope.
9. Apply the cover slip over the Neubauer rulings.
10. Place one drop over the counting chamber.
11. Apply a cover slip over the tie without any air bubbles.
12. Place the chamber under the microscope. Count the RBC in 5 small squares of the main
central squares which contain 16 smaller squares.
13. The cells touching the upper and the left lines alone should be counted to avoid repetition.

Result: the given sample contains. .....million cells/ml.

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