Functions in mathematics and programming are relations or expressions that map inputs (or

arguments) to outputs (or results). Here are various types of functions along with examples:

### 1. **Linear Function**

- **Definition**: A function that creates a straight line when graphed. It has the form \( f(x) = mx + b \),
where \( m \) is the slope and \( b \) is the y-intercept.

- **Example**: \( f(x) = 2x + 3 \)

### 2. **Quadratic Function**

- **Definition**: A function that forms a parabola when graphed. It has the form \( f(x) = ax^2 + bx +
c \), where \( a \), \( b \), and \( c \) are constants.

- **Example**: \( f(x) = x^2 - 4x + 5 \)

### 3. **Cubic Function**

- **Definition**: A function with the highest exponent of 3, having the form \( f(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d
\).

- **Example**: \( f(x) = 2x^3 + 3x^2 - x + 1 \)

### 4. **Polynomial Function**

- **Definition**: A function that is a sum of terms, each consisting of a variable raised to a non-negative
integer power and multiplied by a coefficient.

- **Example**: \( f(x) = 4x^5 - 3x^3 + 2x - 7 \)

### 5. **Rational Function**

- **Definition**: A function that is the ratio of two polynomials. It has the form \( f(x) = \frac{p(x)}
{q(x)} \), where \( p(x) \) and \( q(x) \) are polynomials and \( q(x) \neq 0 \).

- **Example**: \( f(x) = \frac{1}{x - 2} \)

### 6. **Exponential Function**

- **Definition**: A function where the variable is in the exponent, often in the form \( f(x) = a \cdot
b^x \), where \( b \) is the base and \( a \) is a constant.

- **Example**: \( f(x) = 2 \cdot 3^x \)

### 7. **Logarithmic Function**

- **Definition**: The inverse of an exponential function, typically in the form \( f(x) = \log_b(x) \),
where \( b \) is the base.

- **Example**: \( f(x) = \log_2(x) \)

### 8. **Trigonometric Functions**

- **Definition**: Functions related to angles and periodic phenomena. The most common trigonometric
functions are sine, cosine, and tangent.

- **Examples**:

- Sine: \( f(x) = \sin(x) \)

- Cosine: \( f(x) = \cos(x) \)

- Tangent: \( f(x) = \tan(x) \)

### 9. **Piecewise Function**

- **Definition**: A function composed of different sub-functions, each defined on a specific interval.

- **Example**:

\[

f(x) =

\begin{cases}

x + 2 & \text{if } x \leq 1 \\

3x - 1 & \text{if } x > 1

\end{cases}
 \]

### 10. **Absolute Value Function**

- **Definition**: A function that returns the absolute value of a number, meaning the distance from
zero on the number line. It has the form \( f(x) = |x| \).

- **Example**: \( f(x) = |x - 3| \)

### 11. **Step Function**

- **Definition**: A function that jumps from one value to another without taking intermediate values.
The most well-known is the Heaviside step function.

- **Example**:

\[

f(x) =

\begin{cases}

0 & \text{if } x < 0 \\

1 & \text{if } x \geq 0

\end{cases}

\]

### 12. **Identity Function**

- **Definition**: A function where the output equals the input. It has the form \( f(x) = x \).

- **Example**: \( f(x) = x \)

### 13. **Inverse Function**

- **Definition**: A function that reverses the effect of another function. If \( f(x) \) is a function, its
inverse \( f^{-1}(x) \) satisfies \( f(f^{-1}(x)) = x \).

- **Example**: If \( f(x) = 2x + 1 \), the inverse is \( f^{-1}(x) = \frac{x - 1}{2} \).

Each function type serves specific purposes in mathematical modeling, physics, engineering, and
computer science.

A **one-to-one function**, also known as an **injective function**, is a function where each element
of the domain (input) maps to a unique element of the co domain (output). In other words, no two
different inputs produce the same output. Formally, a function \( f \) is injective if:

\[

f(x_1) = f(x_2) \implies x_1 = x_2

\]

### Example of a One-to-One (Injective) Function:

1. **Linear Function**: \( f(x) = 2x + 3 \)

- For every different value of \( x \), the function produces a different \( f(x) \).

- Suppose \( f(x_1) = f(x_2) \), then \( 2x_1 + 3 = 2x_2 + 3 \), which simplifies to \( x_1 = x_2 \).
Therefore, the function is injective.

2. **Exponential Function**: \( f(x) = 3^x \)

- For any two distinct inputs \( x_1 \) and \( x_2 \), the outputs \( 3^{x_1} \) and \( 3^{x_2} \) will be
different because exponential functions grow or decay in a unique way for each value of \( x \).

3. **Inverse Function**: If \( f(x) = x^3 \), then \( f^{-1}(x) = \sqrt[3]{x} \) is one-to-one because each
output has a unique corresponding input.

### Example of a Non-One-to-One (Non-Injective) Function:

The function \( f(x) = x^2 \) is **not** one-to-one because both \( f(2) = 4 \) and \( f(-2) = 4 \).
Therefore, two different inputs yield the same output.

An injective function is essential in cases where it is important that distinct inputs lead to distinct
outputs, such as in cryptography and other fields requiring reversible operations.

A **surjective function**, also known as an **onto function**, is a function where every element in the
codomain (output set) has at least one preimage (input). In other words, for every element \( y \) in the
codomain, there exists at least one element \( x \) in the domain such that \( f(x) = y \).

Formally, a function \( f: X \to Y \) is surjective if for every \( y \in Y \), there exists \( x \in X \) such that \
( f(x) = y \).

### Example of a Surjective (Onto) Function:

1. **Linear Function**: \( f(x) = 2x + 1 \) (where the codomain is the set of all real numbers \( \
mathbb{R} \)).

- For every real number \( y \), you can find an \( x \in \mathbb{R} \) such that \( f(x) = y \). To find \
( x \) for a given \( y \), solve \( y = 2x + 1 \), which gives \( x = \frac{y - 1}{2} \).

- Thus, every real number \( y \) has a corresponding \( x \), making \( f(x) \) surjective.

2. **Cubic Function**: \( f(x) = x^3 \)

- This function is surjective if the codomain is \( \mathbb{R} \), because for every real number \( y \),
there exists an \( x \) such that \( x^3 = y \). In this case, \( x = \sqrt[3]{y} \), so the function covers all
real numbers.

3. **Sine Function** (restricted to a certain range):

- If \( f(x) = \sin(x) \), and the codomain is restricted to \( [-1, 1] \), then the sine function is surjective
because for every \( y \in [-1, 1] \), there exists at least one value \( x \in \mathbb{R} \) such that \( \
sin(x) = y \).
### Example of a Non-Surjective (Not Onto) Function:

Consider the function \( f(x) = x^2 \), where the domain and codomain are both \( \mathbb{R} \) (the set
of real numbers). This function is **not surjective** because there are no real values of \( x \) such
that \( f(x) = y \) when \( y \) is negative (since the square of any real number is non-negative). Hence,
not every element in the codomain \( \mathbb{R} \) has a corresponding preimage in the domain.

### Conclusion:

A surjective function ensures that every possible output is "hit" by some input, making it useful in
situations where you need to cover the entire range of outputs.

An **into function** is a type of function where the range (set of actual outputs) is a subset of the
codomain (the set of possible outputs). In other words, not every element in the codomain has a
preimage in the domain. This is the opposite of a **surjective (onto)** function, where every element in
the codomain is covered by some element in the domain.

Formally, a function \( f: X \to Y \) is called an into function if there exists at least one element in \( Y \)
(the codomain) that is not the image of any element in \( X \) (the domain).

### Example of an Into Function:

1. **Quadratic Function**: \( f(x) = x^2 \), where the domain is \( \mathbb{R} \) (the set of all real
numbers) and the codomain is also \( \mathbb{R} \).

- The output of \( f(x) = x^2 \) is always non-negative. Therefore, \( f(x) \) only produces values greater
than or equal to 0.

- This means that no element in \( \mathbb{R} \) less than 0 (negative numbers) is the image of any \( x
\in \mathbb{R} \). Thus, this function is **into** because the range is \( [0, \infty) \), which is a proper
subset of the codomain \( \mathbb{R} \).

2. **Exponential Function**: \( f(x) = e^x \), where the domain is \( \mathbb{R} \) and the codomain is \
( \mathbb{R} \).

- The exponential function produces only positive outputs, so no negative values are ever reached.
 - Since negative numbers in the codomain \( \mathbb{R} \) do not have corresponding inputs, this
function is also an **into** function.

### Example of a Non-Into Function (Onto/Surjective):

A linear function like \( f(x) = 2x + 1 \), with domain and codomain as \( \mathbb{R} \), is **not an into
function** because every real number in the codomain \( \mathbb{R} \) has a preimage (i.e., every real
number can be expressed as \( f(x) = 2x + 1 \) for some \( x \)).

### Conclusion:

An **into function** does not cover the entire codomain, meaning there are elements in the codomain
that do not have any corresponding input from the domain. This is important in cases where a function
doesn't need to reach every possible output.

A **bijective function** is a function that is both **injective** (one-to-one) and **surjective** (onto).
In other words, every element in the domain maps to a unique element in the codomain (injective), and
every element in the codomain has a corresponding element in the domain (surjective).

### Characteristics of a Bijective Function:

- **One-to-one (Injective)**: No two distinct inputs map to the same output.

- **Onto (Surjective)**: Every element in the codomain is covered by at least one element from the
domain.

- This means there is a perfect pairing between elements of the domain and codomain, with no overlaps
and no missing elements.

### Formal Definition:

A function \( f: X \to Y \) is bijective if:

1. For all \( x_1, x_2 \in X \), \( f(x_1) = f(x_2) \implies x_1 = x_2 \) (Injective property).

2. For every \( y \in Y \), there exists at least one \( x \in X \) such that \( f(x) = y \) (Surjective property).
### Example of a Bijective Function:

1. **Linear Function**: \( f(x) = 2x + 3 \), where both the domain and codomain are \( \mathbb{R} \)
(the set of real numbers).

- **Injective**: If \( f(x_1) = f(x_2) \), then \( 2x_1 + 3 = 2x_2 + 3 \), which simplifies to \( x_1 = x_2 \).
So, the function is injective.

- **Surjective**: For every real number \( y \), there exists a real number \( x \) such that \( f(x) = y \).
Solving for \( x \), we get \( x = \frac{y - 3}{2} \), showing that the function is surjective.

- Since it is both injective and surjective, the function \( f(x) = 2x + 3 \) is bijective.

2. **Identity Function**: \( f(x) = x \), where the domain and codomain are the same set (e.g., \( X = Y
= \mathbb{R} \)).

- **Injective**: If \( f(x_1) = f(x_2) \), then \( x_1 = x_2 \).

- **Surjective**: For every \( y \in \mathbb{R} \), there exists an \( x \in \mathbb{R} \) such that \( f(x)
= y \).

- The function is bijective because every element in the domain corresponds exactly to one element in
the codomain and vice versa.

3. **Inverse Function**: If \( f(x) = x^3 \), the inverse function \( f^{-1}(x) = \sqrt[3]{x} \) is also bijective.

- **Injective**: No two different inputs have the same cube.

- **Surjective**: Every real number has a cube root, so all elements of the codomain are covered.

### Example of a Non-Bijective Function:

The quadratic function \( f(x) = x^2 \), where the domain and codomain are \( \mathbb{R} \), is **not
bijective** because:

- It is **not injective**: Both \( f(2) = 4 \) and \( f(-2) = 4 \), so different inputs produce the same output.

- It is **not surjective**: Negative numbers in the codomain \( \mathbb{R} \) have no preimage in the
domain since squaring any real number cannot result in a negative number.
### Conclusion:

A **bijective function** is both one-to-one and onto, meaning it forms a perfect pairing between the
domain and codomain. Bijective functions are essential in mathematics, especially for defining inverse
functions and ensuring that every input-output pair is unique and complete.