Introduction to the particulate

nature of matter

SYLLABUS CONTENT
By the end of this chapter, you should understand that:
elements are the primary constituents of matter, which cannot be chemically broken down into
simpler substances
compounds consist of atoms of different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio
mixtures contain more than one element or compound in no fixed ratio, which are not chemically
bonded and so can be separated by physical methods
◆ Matter: Includes atoms,
ions and molecules which the kinetic molecular theory is a model to explain physical properties of matter (solids, liquids and
have mass and volume. gases) and changes of state
temperature (K) is a measure of average kinetic energy (Ek) of particles.
◆ Energy: The ability to
move matter and do work. By the end of this chapter you should know how to:
◆ Mixture: A mixture distinguish between the properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
has the properties of its distinguish the different states of matter
components, and can be use state symbols (s, l, g and aq) in chemical equations
separated by physical interpret observable changes in physical properties and temperature during changes of state
processes. convert between values in the Celsius and Kelvin scales.
◆ Macroscopic level: Note: There is no higher-level only content in S1.1.
Direct observation and
measurement of physical
properties.
Introduction
Chemistry is the study of the composition and reactions of substances (matter).
Matter has mass and occupies space (has volume). Pure substances can exist as
a solid, liquid or gas (states of matter) and are made up of particles (atoms, ions
or molecules).
Matter is associated with energy which exists in various forms, such as heat, light,
electrical, nuclear and chemical energy (within bonds and intermolecular forces).
Matter can be classified into two main groups: pure substances (elements and
compounds) and impure substances (mixtures). Chemists need to separate mixtures
of substances in order to identify pure substances and find their structures.
Chemistry can be understood at three levels. At one level, changes can be
observed: for example, when magnesium burns in oxygen and releases energy as
light and heat energy (Figure S1.1) to form magnesium oxide.
This level is the macroscopic level, because it deals with the bulk properties
of substances, such as density and colour. This interpretation is derived from
observations (especially visual) at the macroscopic level, and associated
quantitative measurements involving weighing, that establish oxygen and
■ Figure S1.1 A chemical reaction: the burning magnesium as the reactants and magnesium oxide (not magnesium peroxide)
of magnesium in oxygen to form magnesium oxide as the product.
◆ Particle level: At the particle level, chemistry interprets these phenomena as changes involving the bonding
Interpretation in terms between atoms, ions and molecules. Magnesium atoms combine with oxygen molecules to form
of atoms, molecules, ions magnesium oxide.
and subatomic particles,
e.g. electrons. The third level is the symbolic level, the expression of chemical phenomena in terms of chemical
◆ Symbolic level: equations using symbols and equations such as 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s). The state symbols (s),
Representations of (l), (g) and (aq) represent pure solid, pure liquid, pure gas and aqueous solution, respectively.
chemical phenomena using
algebra, symbols, shapes A chemist thinks at the particle level, carries out experiments at the macroscopic level (chemicals),
and diagrams. and represents both symbolically. These three aspects of chemistry can be mapped as a triangle
◆ State symbol: Used (Figure S1.2).
in chemical equations to
describe the physical state Macroscopic:
of a reactant or product. Laboratory
experiments

Microscopic: Symbolic: ■ Figure S1.2 This triangle illustrates the three

Particle-level explanations Chemical and modes of scientific inquiry used in chemistry:
mathematical formulas macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic

At the macroscopic level, matter can be classified into mixtures or pure substances. These can be
further subdivided as shown in Figure S1.3.

Matter (has mass

and volume)

Pure substances Mixtures

Fixed composition by mass Variable composition by mass
Cannot be separated into Can be separated by physical
simpler substances by methods into pure substances
physical methods Variable properties depending
properties on composition

Elements Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Cannot be Two or more mixtures mixtures
decomposed elements in Have the Do not have
into simpler a fixed ratio same the same
substances by mass composition composition
by chemical Properties are everywhere everywhere
means very different Components Components
from its elements cannot be can be
distinguished distinguished

■ Figure S1.3 Classification of matter

 TOK

The natural sciences, including chemistry, aim to understand the natural world through observation, via
sense perception, and reasoning (logic). Science begins with observations; therefore, much of science is
purely descriptive. However, science moves beyond pure observation through the use of both deductive
and inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning uses general principles to make specific predictions and experiments, then produce
observations to confirm whether the general principles are reliable enough to make predictions. A
general example might be: ‘If it is true that X causes Y, then when I design an experiment to investigate
X, I should also then observe Y.’

Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction: it uses a number of specific observations to develop
general conclusions. A general example here would be: ‘In all experiments when I see X, I also see Y;
therefore, I can conclude that X and Y have a common cause.’
Scientists use both these forms of reasoning in the scientific method to gain understanding of the natural
world. One form follows the sequence: observation, formulation of a hypothesis (scientific explanation
for an observation), prediction, experimentation and then conclusion.

Elements and compounds

◆ Element: A substance Elements are the simplest substances and cannot be broken down or decomposed into simpler,
(made of one type of atom) more stable substances by a chemical reaction. They can be regarded as the simplest chemical
that cannot be decomposed ‘building blocks’.
into simpler, stable
substances by a chemical Elements contain just one type of atom (which all have the same number of protons). Elements
change. are represented by a letter (e.g. uranium, U) or two letters (e.g. cobalt, Co). Although the atoms
◆ Atom: The smallest of a particular element may differ slightly in mass (isotopes), they all have essentially identical
particle of an element that
can exist.
chemical reactions. The atoms of each element differ in mass (measured by relative atomic mass)
◆ Molecule: Two or more
and size (measured by atomic radius).
different atoms bonded Elements are classified as metals (such as silver), non-metals (for example, nitrogen) or metalloids
(covalently).
(including silicon) which have metallic and non-metallic properties or intermediate properties.
◆ Diatomic: Made of two
atoms bonded together The periodic table (Figure S1.4) arranges all the elements in horizontal rows (periods, numbered
(covalently). 1 to 7) and vertical columns (groups, numbered 1 to 18). Elements are ordered by atomic (proton)
number and elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

Elements can exist as atoms (for example, neon, Ne), or molecules (for example, oxygen, O2,
chlorine, Cl2, and sulfur, S8). Molecules of elements are groups of two or more atoms that are
chemically bonded together by covalent bonds. Diatomic molecules are formed by the covalent
bonding of two atoms, for example, hydrogen (H2).
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 Atomic number Key 2
1 H He
non-metals
1.01 Element 4.00
3 4 metals 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be Relative atomic B C N O F Ne
metalloids
6.94 9.01 mass 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La † Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 (209) (210) (222)

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac ‡ Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (269) (270) (269) (278) (281) (281) (285) (286) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
† Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

‡ Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

■ Figure S1.4 Periodic table of elements (from the IB Chemistry data booklet section 7)

H2 represents a molecule of hydrogen; the subscript 2 represents two individual atoms of hydrogen,
H (Figure S1.5). Writing the 2 as a suffix implies there are two atoms in the formula (chemically
bonded). Hence, H2, and not 2H, is the molecular formula of hydrogen (Figure S1.5).
Each element is represented by a chemical symbol. The symbol consists of either one or two
letters. The first letter is always a capital (upper-case) letter and the second letter is always small
(lower-case). The symbol H is derived from the first letter of the English name, hydrogen.
■ Figure S1.5 A molecule
of hydrogen, H2, and two
hydrogen atoms, 2H
TOK

H
IB A N
People from all cultures have contributed to science, as science is part of the social and cultural traditions
of many human societies. The development of scientific knowledge relies on observations, experimental
O

evidence and logical arguments. However, scientific ideas are affected by the social and historical setting.
Modern chemistry has its origins in alchemy (200BCE–AD1500), which was a series of theories and
experiments designed to ‘transmute’ (change) base metals into gold. The word chemistry is derived from
the Egyptian word chēmeia, which referred to qemi, the Black Land—a reference to the dark fertile soil
of the Nile River. Hence, chemistry originally meant the Art of the Black Land (Black Arts).
The development and rise of alchemy were influenced by the Greek philosophers: for example, the theory
of the four elements, which was the cornerstone of alchemy, was originally described by Empedocles
and developed by Aristotle (around 350BCE). These four elements are fire, earth, water and air, which
alchemists believed could be transformed into one another. Alchemists were concerned with the
transmutation (conversion) of base (cheap) metals into gold and silver.
Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, much of this Arabic knowledge, including earlier Greek
works of science, medicine and philosophy, was translated into Latin and transmitted to European
centres of learning.
The Muslim chemist Al-Jabir Ibn Hayyan (died AD815) discovered 19 elements and perfected chemical
separation techniques such as distillation, crystallization and sublimation. He also suggested that all
matter can be traced to a simple, basic particle composed of charge and fire.
 O Examples of elements that exist as molecules include the diatomic molecules oxygen, O2, chlorine,
oxygen molecule O2 Cl2 , and nitrogen, N2 , and the polyatomic molecules (more than two atoms) phosphorus, P4,
ozone,O3, and sulfur, S8 (Figure S1.6).

N N
nitrogen molecule N2

H
hydrogen molecule H2

Cl Cl
chlorine molecule Cl2

S
S S

S S
S S
sulfur molecule S8

P
P
P

■ Figure S1.6 Diagram

of oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen, chlorine, sulfur
and phosphorus molecules

◆ Compound: A
substance containing two
or more different elements
chemically bonded in a
fixed ratio.

■ Figure S1.7 A model

showing the structure of
the compound calcium
carbonate, CaCO3 (black
spheres represent carbon;
red, oxygen; and white,
calcium)

◆ Ion: An electrically
charged atom or group of A compound may be made up of atoms, molecules or ions. Ions are electrically charged particles
atoms containing different formed from atoms. An ion has either a positive or a negative charge. Water is made of molecules
numbers of protons and
but sodium chloride is made of ions (Figure S1.9).
neutrons; formed by the
loss or gain of electrons
from an atom or group of
bonded atoms.

◆ Chemical change:
A process in which one
or more substances
are converted into new
substances.
 The formation of a compound is a chemical change (or chemical reaction) and the chemical
and physical properties of the compound are different from those of the elements from which it
is formed.
For example, iron sulfide (FeS) can be formed by heating iron with sulfur (Figure S1.10). This is a
chemical change and can be described by the chemical equation with state symbols:
Fe(s) + S(l) → FeS(s)

■ Figure S1.10 Elemental iron and elemental sulfur; the compound iron(II) sulfide and a mixture of elemental iron and elemental sulfur (from left to right)

Chemical reactions always involve the formation of new chemical substances. Sodium ions and
chloride ions are formed from sodium atoms and chlorine molecules, and heat and light energy are
◆ Dissolving: The released during this chemical change.
interaction between a If sodium chloride is mixed with water, an aqueous solution is formed containing sodium and
solute and water molecules
chloride ions surrounded by water molecules. The formation of the solution involves a process
to form a solution.
known as dissolving. The dissolving of sodium chloride (and many other substances, for example,
◆ Physical change: A
reversible change in the sucrose) is a physical process (physical change) and no new substances are formed. Changes of
physical properties of state such as boiling and freezing are also physical changes. Physical changes are reversible and
a substance.
heat energy can be released or absorbed in a physical change.

◆ Internal energy: The

total energy a system
Solvation
has; it is the sum of the
total kinetic and potential When a compound dissolves, the individual ions or molecules interact with the solvent molecules.
energy of all the molecules This is a physical process called solvation and the ions or molecules are said to be solvated.
in the system. Hydration is a specific type of solvation with water as the solvent.
◆ Solvation: The
For example, sodium chloride (solute) dissolves in water (solvent) to form a solution of hydrated
interactions between
solute particles and solvent aqueous ions. Sodium chloride is said to be soluble in water. When no more sodium chloride will
molecules in a solution. dissolve in the water, the solution is said to be saturated.
◆ Solute: The substance The interaction between positive and negative ions and water molecules is due to ion–dipole
that dissolves in a liquid
solvent. forces. They involve electrostatic attraction between ions and the charged ends of the water
◆ Solvent: The liquid in molecules (Figure S1.11). This means that ionic substances are more soluble in water than
which a solute dissolves. other solvents.
◆ Solution: A solute
dissolved in a solvent.
◆ Soluble: A substance
that dissolves in a solvent.
◆ Heterogeneous: A
mixture that does not have
■ Types of mixtures
a uniform composition and Mixtures can be further classified into heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures. Homogeneous
properties. mixtures, such as air and solutions, have a uniform distribution of the different particles. Solids
◆ Homogeneous: A can also form homogeneous mixtures such as copper–nickel alloys.
mixture with a uniform
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is not uniform throughout
composition and
properties. the mixture.
◆ Solubility: The amount ■ A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of a solid and a liquid: for example, fine mud in water.
of solute needed to form a
saturated solution.
■ An emulsion (a type of colloid) is a heterogeneous mixture of different liquids which cannot
be mixed homogeneously: for example, milk, which is a stable mixture of small drops of oil in
◆ Separating funnel: A
glass vessel with a tap at water (stabilized by protein).
the bottom, used to separate ■ Aerosols are heterogeneous mixtures of solids or liquids in gases: for example, smoke or fog.
immiscible liquids.
■ Sols are heterogeneous mixtures of two or more solids or liquids. A sulfur sol is formed when
sodium thiosulfate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. It consists of tiny particles of sulfur
molecules that scatter light.

Separation techniques
Chemists have developed many different methods of separation (Table S1.2), especially for
separating components from complex mixtures.
■ Table S1.2 Common separation techniques
Type of mixture Name of separation technique Physical difference Examples of mixtures separated
insoluble solid and filtration solubility sand and water; calcium carbonate
liquid (chalk) and water
two miscible distillation (simple and boiling point vinegar (ethanoic acid and water)
liquids fractional) and crude oil (a mixture of
hydrocarbon liquids)
soluble solid and crystallization or evaporation volatility sodium chloride (salt) and water
liquid (solution)
soluble solids paper chromatography of solubility food colourings; plant pigments
solution and recrystallization (partitioning)
immiscible liquids separating funnel insolubility (polarity) water and petrol or water and oil

2 State the technique(s) that could be used to separate the following mixtures:
a ethanol from water d food colourings in a sweet (to determine if the
b insoluble magnesium carbonate from a suspension colouring is the result of a single dye or a mixture
in water of dyes)
c cyclohexane (an insoluble hydrocarbon) from water e water from potassium chloride solution
f copper(II) sulfate crystals from its aqueous solution.
 Tool 1: Experimental techniques

The choice of separation technique (Figure S1.15) depends on what is in the mixture and the physical and chemical
properties of the substances present. It also depends on whether the substances to be separated are solids, liquids or gases.

centrifuging immiscible liquids separating

e.g. oil + water funnel

decantation partially
insoluble solid + liquid solvent
e.g. pebbles + water, liquid + liquid miscible liquids
extraction
sand + water e.g. iodine + water
filtration

solid + liquid miscible liquids fractional

evaporation to e.g. ethanol + water distillation
soluble solid + liquid dryness
e.g. sodium chloride +
water, sucrose + water crystallization soluble solid + insoluble
solid e.g. sodium chloride dissolving +
+ sand, sucrose + sand, filtration +
simple solid + solid
evaporation +
distillation
crystallization

Figure S1.15 Techniques for separating a mixture

◆ Filtrate: The solution

that passes through Some skin ointments contain a white solid, camphor (a hydrocarbon). Before incorporation
the filter paper during
into the ointment, a natural sample of camphor was found to be contaminated with table
filtration.
salt (sodium chloride) and rust (hydrated iron(III) oxide). The effect of three liquids on
◆ Residue: The solid left
these substances is shown in the table below.
on the filter paper during
filtration.
Liquid
water ethanol dilute hydrochloric acid

◆ Saturated (solution): A dissolves to produce a no effect dissolves to produce a

solution in which no more table salt colourless solution colourless solution
solute can dissolve at a no effect dissolves to produce a no effect
particular temperature. camphor colourless solution
rust no effect no effect reacts to give a brown solution

Describe how you would obtain pure and dry camphor from the impure sample of camphor
(without using sublimation).

Add ethanol, stir to dissolve. Filter; the filtrate will be camphor solution. Heat gently using
a water bath to evaporate off all ethanol and obtain dry camphor. Alternatively, add dilute
hydrochloric acid to dissolve both salt and rust (via a chemical reaction), then filter to
obtain solid camphor as a residue. Dry the camphor in the air or in a desiccator or oven.
 Kinetic molecular theory
■ States of matter
◆ States of matter: The states of matter, solid, liquid and gas, can be described in terms of their physical properties.
Solids, liquids and gases Each state of matter has its own properties and these are shown in Table S1.3.
are the three states of
■ Table S1.3 The properties of the three states of matter
matter, depending on the
conditions of temperature Property of matter Solid Liquid Gas
and pressure. shape fixed not fixed (takes the shape of not fixed (takes the shape of
the container it occupies) the container it occupies)
volume fixed fixed not fixed (occupies the
volume of its container)
ability to flow or does not flow flows easily diffuses easily (from
spread high concentration to low
concentration)
compressibility limited compressibility limited compressibility highly compressible
density much higher than gases and usually slightly greater than low
usually slightly higher than solids, but much less than
the liquids liquids

The differences between the physical properties of the three states of matter can be explained by
kinetic molecular theory as shown in Table S1.4. This model describes all substances as being
made up of moving particles and explains how the arrangement of particles (atoms, ions or
molecules) relates to the physical properties of solids, liquids and gases.
■ Table S1.4 Kinetic molecular theory
State of matter Solid Liquid Gas
Distances The particles are often arranged as a crystal with The particles are not arranged in a lattice The particles are far apart.
between a regular repeating arrangement (lattice). and are slightly further apart than in solids. A gas can be easily compressed
particles Solids cannot be compressed very much because Liquids cannot be easily compressed as the because there are large distances
(interparticle the particles are closely packed and are touching. particles are close together and there is little between particles which are
distances) They will repel if brought closer. space between them. present at low concentration.
Forces acting There are balanced forces (of attraction and The particles can vibrate, rotate and move The particles move randomly at
between repulsion) between the particles which hold them freely within the body of the liquid. high speed, colliding with other
particles in fixed positions. There are attractive forces operating gas particles and with the walls
The particles can only vibrate about their fixed between the particles but they are not held of the container.
positions within the lattice. This explains why a in a fixed position and move past each other The intermolecular forces act
solid has a fixed shape and a fixed volume. throughout the liquid. only at moments of collision.
The strong attractive forces prevent the particles The attractive forces operating between the Between collisions the particles
from leaving their positions. The repulsive particles make it difficult for particles to are sufficiently far apart that
forces act when the particles are brought leave (except at the surface by evaporation), the intermolecular forces
closer than their equilibrium positions and this hence liquids have a definite volume. are negligible. Therefore,
limits compressibility. a gas is free to fill its
When a liquid is heated the particles vibrate
container completely.
When a solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic more and move more quickly. The liquid
energy and vibrate. The separation between expands slightly and the amount in the gas
particles increases slightly and the solid expands. above it increases.
 ◆ Changes of state: Figure S1.18 shows the relationship between the states of matter and the arrangement (simplified
The interconversion and in two dimensions only) of their particles (ions, atoms or molecules). The arrows represent
(via physical changes) physical changes known as changes of state.
of a substance between
the solid, liquid and sublimation
gaseous states.
◆ Melting: The change
of a solid into a liquid at
constant temperature.
◆ Boiling: The change of a heat heat
liquid into a gas at constant
temperature (at a pressure
equal to the surrounding
pressure). cool cool
◆ Condensing: The change (condense)
of a gas into a liquid (at
constant temperature).
◆ Freezing: The change
of a liquid into a solid (at
constant temperature).
◆ Sublimation: A change deposition
of state from solid to gas solid liquid gas
(at constant temperature)
without melting occurring. ■ Figure S1.18 The three states of matter and their interconversion

◆ Deposition: The
formation of a solid on

■ Changes of state
a surface from a gas (at
constant temperature).
During melting and boiling, heat is absorbed from the surroundings. During condensing and
◆ Evaporation: When the freezing, heat is released to the surroundings. The heat supplied during melting and boiling is used
particles from the surface to ‘break’ the attractive forces between particles by increasing their potential energy. The heat
of a liquid form a gas released during condensing and freezing is from the decrease in the potential energy of the particles.
below its boiling point.
When heated, some pure solids, such as CO2(s) and I2(s), can undergo sublimation and change
directly to a gas without passing through the liquid state. The molecules leave the solid’s surface
with enough kinetic energy to exist as gas particles. If the temperature is lowered, the gas particles
slow down and re-form the solid without passing through the liquid state in a process known
as deposition.

Some particles at the surface of a liquid have enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces of
attraction between themselves and they escape to form a gas. This process is evaporation and it takes place at all temperatures
below the boiling point of the liquid. If the temperature is lowered, the reverse process, known as condensation, occurs. The gas
particles move more slowly and enter the surface of the liquid.
At the boiling point, the particles are trying to escape from the liquid so quickly that bubbles of
gas form inside the bulk of the liquid and the pressure of the gas created above the liquid equals
that of the air (atmospheric pressure). Liquids with higher boiling points have stronger bonds
(intermolecular forces) between their particles.
tip! When a gas is cooled, the average kinetic energy (and hence speed) of the particles decreases,
The heat released or the particles move closer and their average separation decreases. The forces of attraction become
absorbed during a significant and, if the temperature is lowered to the condensation point, the gas will condense to
change in state is known form a liquid. When a liquid is cooled to its freezing point (equal in value to the melting point), it
as the latent heat. changes to a solid. During condensing and freezing, heat energy is released.
◆ Temperature: Measure
of the average kinetic
energy of particles in a
substance.
◆ Absolute zero: A
temperature (−273.15 °C)
which corresponds to the
complete absence of heat, Temperature
and hence no particle
vibrations. Temperature is measured by a thermometer and is directly related to the random motion
◆ Absolute temperature: of particles.
A temperature expressed At temperatures above absolute zero (0 K or −273.15 °C), all particles in matter have kinetic energy.
on the thermodynamic
temperature scale (with
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature and is the absence of particle vibration (internal
units of kelvin). energy). Whenever a substance’s temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of its particles
◆ Celsius scale: Scale of has increased.
temperature based on a The kelvin (K) is the unit of absolute or thermodynamic temperature (Figure S1.19). The kelvin
one-hundred degree range
between the melting point
is the SI unit of temperature and should always be used in calculations involving temperature,
of pure ice and the boiling such as those involving gas laws or thermodynamics.
point of water (under
standard conditions).
0K
–273.15 °C ip[]p’ce steam point
point

tip! Note that the difference between the

Celsius and thermodynamic scales is
= 273.15 K
= 0 °C
= 373.15 K
= 100 °C
only a matter of definition – they are = 0 degrees = 100 degrees
The distribution of Celsius Celsius
defined using different fixed points.
particle kinetic energies = 32 °F = 212°F
in a substance is given by
■ Figure S1.19 The defining temperatures on the absolute and Celsius scales
the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution. This is However, you will usually measure temperature using a thermometer that measures in degrees Celsius
used in the collision with a scale based on two fixed points: the freezing and boiling points of water.
theory of reaction rates
You can convert temperatures from the Celsius scale to the absolute scale by adding 273.15.
to explain the effects of
temperature changes on
Hence, the boiling point of water is approximately 100 °C + 273.15 = 373.15 K. Note that the kelvin
rates of reaction. unit does not have a degree symbol, °. Negative temperatures are possible on the Celsius scale but
not on the Kelvin scale.

tip! Figure S1.20 shows the difference between heat and temperature. The large and small beakers
contain water at the same temperature. However, the masses of the water are different and when
A change in temperature
the same amount of heat is transferred to the water in the small beaker and in the large beaker, the
has the same numerical
value on both scales.
temperature rises are different. The smaller mass of water has a larger increase in temperature.
large beaker
warm water

50 000 J of heat
What is the graphical
distribution of kinetic
energy values of
particles in a sample at a
fixed temperature?

water at 25 °C

What must happen to hot water

particles for a chemical 50 000 J of heat
reaction to occur?