Microplastice - A Critical Review On Plastic Waste Life Cycle Assessment and Management

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 271 (2024) 115942
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoenv
Review
A critical review on plastic waste life cycle assessment and management:

Challenges, research gaps, and future perspectives
Haixin Jiao a, Sameh S. Ali a, b, *, Mohammed Husssein M. Alsharbaty c, d, **, Tamer Elsamahy a,
Esraa Abdelkarim a, Michael Schagerl e, ***, Rania Al-Tohamy a, Jianzhong Sun a, *
a
Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
b
Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt
c
Department of Prosthodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
d
Branch of Prosthodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Al-Ameed, Karbala, Iraq
e
Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna A-1030, Austria
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Edited by Bing Yan The global production and consumption of plastics, as well as their deposition in the environment, are experi
encing exponential growth. In addition, mismanaged plastic waste (PW) losses into drainage channels are a
Keywords: growing source of microplastic (MP) pollution concern. However, the complete understanding of their envi
Petroleum-based plastics ronmental implications throughout their life cycle is yet to be fully understood. Determining the potential extent
Microplastics
to which MPs contribute to overall ecotoxicity is possible through the monitoring of PW release and MP removal
Bioplastics
during remediation. Life cycle assessments (LCAs) have been extensively utilized in many comparative analyses,
Life cycle assessment
Environmental impacts such as comparing petroleum-based plastics with biomass and single-use plastics with multi-use alternatives.
Circular economy These assessments typically yield unexpected or paradoxical results. Nevertheless, there is still a paucity of
reliable data and tools for conducting LCAs on plastics. On the other hand, the release and impact of MP have so
far not been considered in LCA studies. This is due to the absence of inventory-related data regarding MP releases
and the characterization factors necessary to quantify the effects of MP. Therefore, this review paper conducts a
comprehensive literature review in order to assess the current state of knowledge and data regarding the
environmental impacts that occur throughout the life cycle of plastics, along with strategies for plastic man
agement through LCA.
1. Introduction 2023b). Global plastic manufacturing reached 359 million tons in the
last two years, and it is expected to be higher, taking into consideration
The devastating effect of plastic waste (PW) on the ecosystem has the rising population and increasing demand (Roy et al., 2022). Ac
been a concern due to the rapid increase in population (Sakarika et al., cording to current production data and trends, human activities are
2023). PW has been estimated to be 8.3 billion million tons since 1950 projected to generate a cumulative 26 billion tons of PW by the year
(Aizudin et al., 2022). An enormous increase in household PW has 2050 (Lavoie et al., 2022). Global production reached 359 million tons
occurred since the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in a in 2018 alone (PlasticEurope, 2019). In 2010, 1.75–4.62 % of the PW
global waste management catastrophe (Al-Tohamy et al., 2023a, quantity produced was entered the oceans (Jambeck et al., 2015).
Abbreviations: EoL, End-of-life; GHG, Greenhouse gas; HDPE, High-density polyethylene; LCA, Life cycle assessment; LCI, Life cycle inventory; LCIA, Life cycle
impact assessment; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene; MPs, Microplastics; NPs, Nanoplastics; PE, Polyethylene; PET, Polyethylene terephthalate; PHAs, Poly
hydroxyalkanoate; PLA, Polylactic acid; PP, Polypropylene; PS, Polystyrene; PU, Polyurethane; PVC, Polyvinyl chloride; PW, Plastic waste; ROS, Reactive oxygen
species; UV, Ultraviolet.
* Corresponding authors at: Biofuels Institute, School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
** Corresponding author at: Department of Prosthodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq.
*** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S.S. Ali), [email protected] (M.H.M. Alsharbaty), michael.schagerl@
univie.ac.at (M. Schagerl), [email protected] (J. Sun).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.115942
Received 8 September 2023; Received in revised form 12 December 2023; Accepted 3 January 2024
Available online 12 January 2024
0147-6513/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
H. Jiao et al. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 271 (2024) 115942
Plastics are thermoset or thermoplastic polymers that are chemically (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl
manufactured (Ali et al., 2021a). Thermoset polymers are irreversible chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PU), polystyrene (PS), and other petro
polymers, which are petrochemical by-products that are no longer leum compounds, which have adverse effects on human health (Ali
recyclable (Aizudin et al., 2022). Thermoplastic, on the other hand, is a et al., 2021a, 2023a). Polluted water is responsible for an estimated 500,
petrochemical-based material that, when malleable, can be molded into 000 diarrheal deaths annually, according to the World Health Organi
an infinite variety of shapes to suit various applications. They are viable zation (WHO, 2019). Animals are able to readily consume the micro
for recycling and repurposing as primary resources in the production of plastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) that result from the dumping of
additional value-added products (Khoaele et al., 2023). Currently, billions of tons of PW (Elsamahy et al., 2023). This disrupts ecosystems
plastic is recognized as the second most commonly utilized material for and annually claims the lives of millions of children and animals. Plas
packaging food (Wrońska et al., 2023). This contributes to the escalation tics degradation via biotic and abiotic factors generates MPs (less than 5
of PW, which is one of the primary factors responsible for the mortality mm) or NPs (less than 100 nm) (Elsamahy et al., 2023). Polymeric
of marine animals (Al-Tohamy et al., 2022). In addition, plastic pack powders used in cosmetics, synthetic paint, coatings, and soaps are the
aging frequently contains toxic synthetic compounds like polyethylene principal sources of MPs and NPs. Commonly used plastic materials,
Fig. 1. Microplastic origin, fate, transport and proposed solution strategies.
2
dust, tire abrasion, and synthetic coloring agents are recognized to be material extraction, production, transportation, consumption, and
secondary sources of MPs (Alexy et al., 2020). Secondary production of disposal (Hellweg et al., 2023). However, understanding the life-cycle
MPs and NPs results from the use of plastics in Fisheries and Agro environmental impacts of plastics hinges on their availability and
industry, as well as in household plastics (Ding et al., 2020). LCIA methods. This review paper evaluates the existing databases,
Fig. 1 depicts a synopsis of MPs origin, fate, transport, and proposed literature, and recent activities related to LCAs of plastics. It focuses on
solution strategies. MPs and NPs are diminutive synthetic particles whether the body of knowledge and data accumulated in the literature
discovered in marine and freshwater environments (Onyedibe et al., and existing databases are sufficient to understand the environmental
2023). Marine species has the capacity to consume them, leading to impacts of plastics over their whole life cycle. It also discusses the
various disorders and even death (Hale et al., 2020). MPs have the po remediation approaches to mitigate MPs, along with the identification of
tential to transport chemical contaminants and heavy metals, which can bottlenecks and gaps in current studies and future perspectives.
accumulate in the food chain and cause harm to marine organisms
(Huang et al., 2021). In addition, MPs and NPs have the potential to 2. Methodology
pollute terrestrial ecosystems, leading to negative impacts on soil
fertility and the disruption of nutrient cycle (Kumar et al., 2023). MP The identification of pertinent research for this review was accom
contamination has the potential to disturb ecosystem services, leading to plished by conducting a literature search across various sources from
adverse effects on water quality, ecosystems, and sectors such as fish 1990 to 2023, including Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. A
eries and tourism (Ding et al., 2020; Elsamahy et al., 2023). Addressing diverse range of keyword combinations was employed in this investi
this issue requires reducing plastic consumption, improving waste gation to compile an exhaustive compilation of pertinent studies. To
management, and finding sustainable alternatives to single-use plastics obtain the life cycle assessments (LCAs) pertaining to plastics, the key
(Ali et al., 2022, 2023a). words "plastics," "polymer," "life cycle," "life cycle," and "life cycle
The current challenges in the food packaging sector pertain to two assessment" were combined. In addition, specific application types and
primary areas: firstly, the incorporation of biopolymers in place of material characteristics have been used, including “microplastics,”
plastic derived from finite resources; and secondly, the production of a “nanoplastics,” “bioplastics,” “alternatives,” “biodegradable,” “mate
packaging material endowed with consumer-appealing qualities rials,” “recycling,” “packaging,” “bio-based,” “plasticizers,” “impacts,”
(Maurizzi et al., 2022; Mohammed and Fatalla, 2020). Contemporary and “reusable.” The bibliometric study was conducted using the VOS
consumers exhibit a growing apprehension regarding ecological con viewer software, which enables the expansion and retrieval of infor
cerns; consequently, the food packaging industry must place a higher mation inside each cluster. The network of words is visually represented
emphasis on satisfying this demand (Al-Samaray and Fatalla, 2023). The using colours and nodes. Larger nodes indicate descriptors with stronger
incorporation of numerous biodegradable chemicals that possess anti connections, while nodes of the same colour represent descriptors that
oxidant, antibacterial, or nutraceutical properties is attractive to con are closely related. On the other hand, distant groupings of nodes
sumers (Mohammed et al., 2021). Chitosan, alginate, and pectin are the represent descriptors with fewer links. Whether or not the principles and
most compatible biopolymers used in food packaging, biotechnological research it included addressed at least one aspect of plastics’ environ
processes, and biomedical applications (Abdul-Ameer, 2020; Martău mental impact or significance was what determined the relevance of the
et al., 2019). Polymers that carry positive charges, like the polycationic literature search. The lines indicate the connections between the
polymer chitosan, and those with negative charges, such as the anionic groupings. Relevant databases and reports that were not uncovered
biopolymer pectin, combine to form a durable structure known as through the keyword searches were incorporated into the list through
polyelectrolyte complexes (Ishihara et al., 2019; Rumyantsev et al., manual means. The obtained data showed 10,921 keywords; of these,
2021). Recognized for their potential, these biopolymers are poised to 1113 met the threshold, and 743 were selected to construct the co-
play a significant role in future advancements across various fields occurance analysis to show eight different clusters (Fig. 2).
including biotechnology, food science, ecological preservation, bio
energy, the creation of biosensors, clinical medicine, and the develop 3. Plastic waste and ecotoxicity
ment of sustainable biomaterials (Al-anbagi et al., 2018; Annisa et al.,
2022; Ibrahim and Al Nakkash, 2017). Prevalent environmental fate and potential physiological effects on
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a standardized analytical tool designed biota and humans may be influenced by distinctions in the physico
to aid decision-making by identifying options or solutions that have the chemical properties of MPs and NPs (Elsamahy et al., 2023). A wide
least potential for environmental impacts (Askham et al., 2023). LCA range of pollutants composed of polymers, MPs exhibit substantial
comprises an analysis phase known as the life cycle inventory (LCI), variation in both their physical and chemical characteristics (Danso
which compiles a comprehensive list of all resources extracted from the et al., 2022; Hamidian et al., 2021; Koutra et al., 2021). MPs enter the
environment and pollutants discharged during each stage of the product environment through the foraging mechanisms and habitats of an
or process system under investigation (Stephan et al., 2019). Subse assortment of organisms (Lwanga et al., 2022). Important determinants
quently, in order to facilitate the comparison of alternatives, the life of organism-MP interactions and potential impacts include exposure
cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase characterizes these inventory route and life stage. Interactions between biota and MPs can involve
flows in terms of prospective impacts across multiple categories ingestion, tissue transfer, and accumulation, in terms of the physiolog
(including ecotoxicity, land use, and global warming) (Chen et al., ical effects of MPs on marine organisms (Prinz and Korez, 2020). The
2021). The LCIA results can be further translated into the potential various kinds of interactions that ensue have been linked to a diverse
damages to main areas of protection, including human health, array of consequences, which have been documented in the literature
ecosystem quality, and natural resources. It is necessary to improve the (Cong et al., 2019). These risks include mortality and stress. Particles
life cycle of plastics in order to conserve energy and resources while with a mass disproportionate to that of the organism have the potential
preventing the release of mismanaged PW into the ocean and hazardous to obstruct the digestive tract, resulting in a pseudo-satiation and a
emissions. MPs waste can be reduced through the implementation of the reduction in food absorption (Kaur et al., 2022). Furthermore, certain
subsequent three phases: addressing industrial advancements in plastics entanglement phenomena documented the entrapment of MPs in the
manufacturing, which may involve the application of LCA; reducing the appendages of zooplankton and the adsorption of MPs onto the surface
market appeal of plastics by encouraging recycling; and recovering PW of microalgae (Zhang et al., 2017).
(Prata et al., 2019). MPs and NPs exhibit comparable characteristics with regards to their
LCA is an empirical approach that evaluates the environmental im origin, morphological characteristics, and polymeric diversity (Elsa
pacts of products throughout their entire life cycle, encompassing raw mahy et al., 2023). The environmental fate and potential physiological
3
Fig. 2. The network of top keywords associated with plastic waste and life cycle assessment
effects of NPs on biota and humans may be influenced by distinctions in of petroleum-based polymers, including PET, PU, PVC, PE, PP, and PS
their physicochemical properties when compared to MPs (Shi et al., (Ali et al., 2023a). The resistance to corrosion, lightweight nature, and
2022). Hence, in order to conduct an accurate analysis, it is imperative capacity for processing at lower temperatures of petroleum-based
that the data obtained for LCIA take into account these fundamental polymers have led to their substitution for alternative materials. There
distinctions. The toxicity mechanisms underlying the observed effects of has been a growing concern regarding the potential for polymers to
MPs/NPs remain poorly understood, despite the fact that numerous accumulate in waste streams without degrading, coinciding with the
studies have been conducted on the physiological effects of MPs on rising demand for plastics (Ali et al., 2021a). The characteristics of
biota. For example, the impacts of MP fail to consider the chemical in conventional plastics that degrade slowly are advantageous for storage,
teractions inherent in plastics due to the ignorance of conducting use, and transportation, but not for disposal (Naser et al., 2021). The
chemical analysis (Lusher et al., 2021). Moreover, the information uti substantial life-cycle environmental impacts of conventional plastics are
lised for risk assessment frequently pertains solely to the dimensions or unsurprising, considering the scale of production. The life cycle of
polymeric constituents of plastic particles or particle sizes without conventional plastics produces 1.7 Gt CO2 per year (Zheng and Suh,
adding chemical additives into consideration (Capolupo et al., 2020). 2019). The rate of these emissions is significantly greater than the
Additives deliberately incorporated into plastics to improve their func annual direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the global aviation
tionality and impart particular characteristics. Plasticizers, stabilisers, industry.
antistatic agents, and additional chemical compounds are examples of
these additives (Askham et al., 2023). Constantly debated is the vector 4.2. Bioplastics
effect, which refers to the significance of compounds adhered to the
surface of MPs/NPs from the surrounding environment (Woods et al., Bio-based polymers, also known as bioplastics, fall into two primary
2021). As the degradation process of plastic continues, it is possible that categories: those synthesised through bioengineering or naturally
multiple recipient organisms will be subjected to a cascade of detri occurring processes involving live organisms (e.g., poly
mental effects for the duration of the plastic emission’s existence hydroxyalkanoate; PHAs) and those derived from bio-based monomers
(Wayman and Niemann, 2021). This may include the release of toxic (e.g., polylactic acid; PLA) (Ali et al., 2023a; Pellis et al., 2021). PHAs
compounds associated with plastic. and PLA are the most studied bio-based and biodegradable plastic
polymers since both polymers are derived from renewable sources, such
4. Life cycle assessment of plastics as corn and sugarcane (Ali et al., 2022). Comparable mechanical prop
erties characterize PHAs and PLA in comparison to other commodity
4.1. Conventional plastics plastics; furthermore, the renewable feedstock of both polymers facili
tates a degradation mechanism that is both more straightforward and
Conventional plastics, also known as petroleum-based plastics, expeditious (Joseph et al., 2023). Nevertheless, due to the fact that the
constitute the most prevalent form of plastic. An estimated 4–8 % of properties of certain bioplastics differ from those of conventional plas
global oil consumption is attributable to the 350 million tons of plastics tics, their applications and sector emphasis are also distinct. In
produced annually (Pires da Mata Costa et al., 2021). A majority of consistencies in packaging and textiles are where conventional plastics
plastics are made of petroleum-based polymers. There are six categories are most frequently substituted. Nevertheless, it is important to mention
4
that not every bio-based polymer exhibits biodegradability (Pellis et al., this phase of the cycle, 99 % of the fundamental materials used are
2021). Bio-based PE, PP, and PET, for instance, cannot be decomposed derived from fossil fuels, while only 1 % are derived from vegetation
despite being partially or entirely derived from bio-based feedstock (Ali (Williams and Rangel-Buitrago, 2022). The polymerization of oil
et al., 2021a). Polybutylene succinate and poly-caprolactone, which are monomers generates petroleum-based plastic pellets. Different pellets
both petroleum-based polymers, are biodegradable plastics (Ali et al., are generated before being transferred to other processes to manufacture
2023a). Bio-based polymers that are not biodegradable and plastic products. As shown in Fig. 3, the process of plastic production
petroleum-based polymers that are biodegradable are referred to as entails the extraction and purification of crude oil, which yields naphtha
bioplastics or biopolymers (Helanto et al., 2019). as a raw material. The naphtha is then subjected to cracking, a process
The waste management alternatives for bio-based plastics and con that breaks it down into smaller molecules such as ethylene and pro
ventional plastics are distinct. The two plastic types are frequently pylene. These molecules are subsequently polymerized to produce
incompatible for recycling. On the contrary, bioplastics have the ca polymers, which are further processed to manufacture plastic products
pacity to be composted, recycled, incinerated, and digested anaerobi such as PE, PP, and PVC. This process is resource-intensive and has
cally (Bishop et al., 2021). Anaerobic digestion is the preferred significant environmental impacts, including GHG emissions and
technique for waste degradation (Ali and Sun, 2015, 2019; Ali et al., pollution (Rodríguez et al., 2019).
2017, 2020, 2021b), while others prefer the incineration approach Implementing crude oil as a primary feedstock in manufacturing is
(Antelava et al., 2019). Labelling and sorting systems must be stand completely dependent on the type and usefulness of the product (Kumar
ardised in a transparent manner to guarantee the most effective et al., 2021). Pellets and other supplements are required in the manu
end-of-life (EoL) management of biodegradable plastics, which impacts facture of a variety of products. Plastic pellets are combined with
LCA results (Prieto, 2016). Although bio-based plastics and conventional different additives to create plastic items such as bags, bottles, and
PWs can both be recycled, it is preferable to separate these two plastic pipelines (USEPA, 2020). A lot of chemical compounds can be added to a
types. This is because doing so can enhance the rate of energy recovery piece of plastic during the moulding step for functionality, performance,
for non-recyclable bioplastics and the decomposition rate of biode and ageing (Hahladakis et al., 2018). The transportation of unprocessed
gradable waste (Wojnowska-Baryła et al., 2020). At present, materials from the place of acquisition to the refineries and factories for
petroleum-based plastics are more cost-effective than those derived the formation of final products necessitates a sophisticated transit and
from renewable sources. However, when external costs and future warehouse system (Williams and Rangel-Buitrago, 2022). All trans
optimisation are considered, it is anticipated that the price of fossil portation methods are vulnerable to material losses due to leaks that can
fuel-based polymers will increase by 44 % compared to bio-based cause serious accidents and explosions. Even terrorist attacks have been
polymers (Pellis et al., 2021). Nevertheless, a comprehensive analysis recorded in relation to the transport of petrochemical materials. These
of the environmental consequences of polymers derived from biomass merchant routes face environmental, public health, and safety risks
and those derived from fossil fuels remains a formidable task due to the (Williams and Rangel-Buitrago, 2022). A mode of conveyance that is
inherent variations that exist among LCA studies. For instance, EoL under control is the ship or boat. This is not, nevertheless, the prevailing
scenarios are modelled differently in the vast majority of LCA studies, practice. The plastic industry in the United States utilized pipes
which complicates the comparison of the environmental impacts of numbering one million between January 2010 and November 2018.
waste streams (Gadaleta et al., 2023). This practice resulted in over five thousand incidents, 300 explosions,
The preponderance of LCAs pertaining to PLA and PHA biopolymers over 800 fires, 600 injuries, over 125 fatalities, billions of dollars in
were preoccupied with their GHG emissions. The findings revealed a damages, and the evacuation of thousands of individuals (FracTracker,
number of results concerning the application and possible mitigation of 2020). Throughout the United States, a significant number of these lines
the environmental effects of plastics (Kakadellis and Harris, 2020). transport plastics’ primary materials. Throughout its manufacturing
Although these polymers might mitigate climate impacts, they could lifecycle, a product’s design dictates its longevity. Therefore, products
also lead to additional environmental compromises (Hottle et al., 2013). with extended lifespans as a result of their capacity to disassemble,
Energy consumption is comparable between bioplastics and conven reassemble, and evolve are the objective of sustainable design (Bocken
tional plastics, according to a number of LCA studies on PHA (Bishop et al., 2016).
et al., 2021). Although bioplastics generally exhibit lower climate Circular economy on plastic materials can be supported in personal
change impacts, they frequently perform less favourably in other impact care product manufacturing, synthetic textile manufacturing, and
categories (Morais et al., 2022). The energy consumption associated apparel manufacturing units (Gazal et al., 2021). For instance, in plastic
with the conversion of agricultural products to plastics materials is manufacturing, functional additives, light and heat stabilizers, antioxi
anticipated to be substantial, which may contribute to an increased dants, fillers, plasticizers, pigments, flame retardants, acid scavengers,
global warming impact (Shen et al., 2020). Land-use change, which is lubricants, anti-static agents, and slip compounds are the most common
geographically dependent, is an additional significant factor in assessing additives used (Hahladakis et al., 2018). Mass volumes of pellets are lost
the environmental impacts of bio-based plastics (Escobar and Britz, accidentally due to leakage while producing various types of plastics and
2021). A significant portion of land will be required to produce leakage into the environment (Steensgaard et al., 2017). The paths for
bio-based plastics, which poses a threat to the food value chain by pellet disposal are difficult to follow. Nevertheless, plastic pieces
competing with agricultural production. As a result of emissions from resulting from the pre-production stage of plastic manufacture caused
land use and land management, the large-scale production of bio-based the most significant MP contamination (Campanale et al., 2020). The
plastics may potentially have a greater negative impact on the envi final products enter the market, and their duration there depends on
ronment. For this reason, when evaluating the life-cycle impacts of their quality and durability. When plastic items are broken, they end up
biomass feedstock, it is essential to consider land-based emissions. uncontrolled at waste collection stations. Competent institutions are
responsible for collecting the plastic residues, separating them, and
4.3. Life cycle of plastic manufacturing and its waste formation finally reducing their volume before making them suitable for reuse (Dai
et al., 2022). Subsequently, an attempt is made to recycle the materials
Petrochemistry and fossil fuels are crucial to the production of that could not be reused. Otherwise, part of the contained energy is
plastic. Petroleum-based feedstock comprises 99 % of plastic production recovered through biological degradation or combustion, before
feedstock, which accounts for approximately 8.5 % of global oil pro applying the last alternative of their deposition in landfills (Yaashikaa
duction, 4.5 % of petrol consumption, and 3.5 % of energy (Jambeck et al., 2022).
et al., 2015). Mining, drilling, and fracturing are examples of large-scale The majority of untreated PW ends up in the sea through waterways
operations that facilitate the development of natural extraction. During formed by lakes, rivers, and streams (Steensgaard et al., 2017).
5
Fig. 3. The manufacturing of different plastic types after extraction and refining of crude oil.
Recycling has to be the promoted method of PW management based on excessive use of plastics during the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic
reduced emissions, as it also generates employment, minimizes natural (Al-Tohamy et al., 2023b). The difficulties in hospitals worldwide have
resource depletion, decreases value loss, recovers valuable petrochem been de-escalated, people recovered and now a more sustainable
icals, and is effective for continuing circular economy (Ali et al., 2022; life-style should be adopted.
Kumar et al., 2021). However, recycled plastics have drawbacks such as Plastic products are ultimately disposed of in landfills, incinerators,
significant emissions that might be produced during transportation, or recycling facilities. In the European Union and India, for instance,
lower quality compared to new products, and energy may be required 24.9 % and 65.9 % of PW, respectively, wind up in landfills (USEPA,
for remanufacturing (Dogu et al., 2021). Therefore, during LCA, the 2020). The quantity of PW dumped in the United States has witnessed a
advantages of recycling have to be evaluated. substantial rise from 20 million tons in 2000 to 27 million tons in 2018.
Given the volume of petrochemical plastics manufactured annually, The proportion of PW that ultimately ended up in landfills varied be
it also seems critical to study the reusability of PW ahead of time in order tween 22 % and 43 %, according to the linear economy model (Gour
to reduce environmental deterioration and waste accumulation. Geyer melon, 2015). The majority of PW will inevitably wind up in landfills, as
et al. (2017) reported that non-reusable packaging plastics accounted for all other options have been exhausted (Al-Tohamy et al., 2023a). It is
47 % of worldwide PW, with Asia accounting for 50 %. Approximately imperative to minimise the risk associated with soil and groundwater
70 % of the global PW is classified as disposable or has been utilized and contamination while simultaneously striving to prevent the depletion of
is no longer suitable for recycling or reuse (Zhao et al., 2019). By resources and land (Ali et al., 2021a). Landfill mining is an activity that
employing bioplastics, reducing the use of unnecessary packaging, and reintroduces discarded materials into routine activities. In landfills,
adopting environmentally friendly materials, one can effectively alle however, the vast majority of plastics degrade and become polluted,
viate the detrimental environmental impacts caused by plastics (Ali rendering them unsuitable for recovery. Prolonged periods of inertia
et al., 2022, 2023a). The circular economy is founded upon the principle result in detrimental ecological consequences, including reduced soil
of mitigating the excessive consumption of resources that characterises fertility, alterations in physicochemical composition, and a decline in
the linear economy (Velenturf and Purnell, 2021). Concerning polymers, microbial diversity (Ali et al., 2023b; Elsamahy et al., 2023b).
it is critical to ensure that waste materials generated by the linear Furthermore, the release of gaseous contaminants may result in diges
economy are retained for the longest possible duration within closed tive difficulties for terrestrial fauna (Ukaogo et al., 2020). PW can be
circular systems (Schwarz et al., 2021). This enables the materials to converted to an energy-generating alternative via combustion as an EoL
undergo the greatest possible value extraction prior to their degradation option (Roy et al., 2022).
into MPs or NPs. Medical PW has increased dramatically during the COVID-19
pandemic crisis; these wastes can be incinerated to generate energy
using furnaces that are commonly utilised in businesses (Al-Tohamy
4.4. Plastic consumption and end of life option et al., 2023b). Road construction and the production of cement and
ceramics aggregates can both benefit from the ash produced during
Many plastic products can be reused during the consumption phase, incineration (Prata et al., 2019). Landfilling has been outlawed in
leading to various outcomes (Heidbreder et al., 2019). For instance, Finland, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Belgium, among other
plastic bottles filled with air can be used as tools in sandstone-based European countries. In these countries, the disposal of PW in landfills is
construction. These bottles can be replaced with plastics made from limited to 5 %; the remaining 5 % is either recovered or thermally
waste, which have better thermal insulation properties than traditional treated for energy conversion (Steensgaard et al., 2017). Furthermore, in
construction materials (Mansour and Ali, 2015). Plastics that can be their investigation of the environmental impacts of mechanical treat
recycled may be separated and purified because of their high quality, ment for recycling, combustion, and landfilling, Chen et al. (2019)
lowering costs and even replacing the originally used product material conducted a LCA of PW EoL alternatives. Their findings revealed that
in a ratio of 1:1 (Huysman et al., 2017). LCA studies exhibited the reuse recycling constituted a substantial adverse factor, albeit with the least
and recycling of PW as an idea that can not only decrease waste to pronounced effect on land acidification (− 83.4 %) and the most pro
landfills but also lower environmental effect (Ali et al., 2022). Since nounced impact on climate change and global warming (− 165.8 %).
2019, the need for better PW treatment has been reinforced by the
6
Regarding eight of the twelve environmental indicators, incineration recovered from waste in south Asia, and India in particular, were
was detrimental, whereas landfilling was beneficial in every respect. It is capable of being recycled. In order to tackle the matter of PW recycling,
necessary to develop recycling technologies and policies in order to the United States is placing emphasis on the recycling of high-density
evaluate the potential environmental benefits (Chen et al., 2019). polyethylene (HDPE) and PET bottles. These types are considered
more critical than others owing to their widespread market presence and
capacity for recycling (USEPA, 2020). The recycling rates for PET and
4.5. Recycling of plastic waste HDPE bottles were 29.1 % and 29.3 %, respectively, in 2018. About 75
% of PW collected from waste locations was treated for energy recovery
In light of the rise in PW, recycling has garnered considerable interest and recycling (PlasticEurope, 2019).
in recent times (Armenise et al., 2021). Among the variables that in The circular economy can offer alternatives, such as the remanu
fluence the recyclability of plastics are additives and the presence of facturing of PW for reuse. Ground PW particles have the potential to be
contaminants (Kumar et al., 2021). The plastic recycling process in utilised as a source of basic materials (Galafassi et al., 2019). Biodeg
volves several key steps to transform PW into new products (Fig. 4). radation through composting (the humidity of the substrate should be
These steps typically include collection, sorting, washing, shredding, regulated) and anaerobic digestion of bioplastics are the most prevalent
melting, and pelletizing. Plastic recycling is crucial for reducing the disposal strategies that generate fertilizer and biofuel. Certain bio
environmental impact of PW, conserving resources, and minimizing plastics are neither biodegradable nor compostable due to their
pollution. It helps in extending the lifespan of landfill sites, reducing petroleum-based composition (Ali et al., 2022, 2023a). The most prev
energy consumption, and mitigating the emission of greenhouse gases alent methods of managing various types of waste bioplastics are
(Raji et al., 2020). As shown in Fig. 4, PW is collected from homes, waste-to-energy, chemical recycling, thermochemical conversion, and
businesses, and public places, either through designated collection sites biological remediation (Wojnowska-Baryła et al., 2020).
or recycling bins. The collected PW is sorted by type and cleaned to Fossil-based plastics, such as crude oil and natural gas, are produced
remove contaminants. This is often done using automated sorting from nonrenewable resources, as illustrated in Fig. 5. Significant envi
equipment and manual checks to ensure the purity of the materials ronmental impacts result from the extraction and processing of these
(Cura et al., 2021). The sorted plastic undergoes a washing process to fossil fuels, including the destruction of habitats, contamination of water
remove impurities and prepare it for further processing (Ojo and Shittu, bodies, and emission of greenhouse gases (Shamoon et al., 2022). Fossil
2023). The cleaned plastic is shredded into small flakes to facilitate the fuels undergo energy-intensive processes to be refined into polymers
melting and then formed into pellets, which can be used to manufacture during the production phase (Gopinath et al., 2020). The environmental
new products (Almeshal et al., 2020). consequences of manufacturing and refining plastics derived from fossil
Soiling or contamination of recyclable plastics with non-recyclable fuels are exacerbated by the frequent use of chemical additives and high
substances can impede the recycling procedure and result in their temperatures (Hahladakis et al., 2020). As a consequence of these pro
disposal in landfills (Le Pera et al., 2023). Furthermore, plastic recycling cesses, energy is consumed and greenhouse gases and other contami
can be a costly endeavour that necessitates substantial investments in nants are emitted. On the other hand, bioplastics are typically derived
infrastructure, machinery, water, and energy (Gopinath et al., 2020). from renewable resources such as corn, sugarcane, or cellulose (Fig. 5).
The quality of recycled plastic may diminish with each recycling cycle, The specific feedstock and production methods used can influence the
and the process often involves mixing in freshly made plastic or toxic environmental impact of bioplastics, including factors, such as land use
additives to restore desirable properties (Hahladakis et al., 2020). change and potential for deforestation (Bishop et al., 2022; George et al.,
Hence, plastic recycling is an essential practice for reducing the envi 2021). However, compared to fossil-based plastics, the manufacturing
ronmental impact of PW and conserving resources. However, it is processes for bioplastics can be more energy-efficient (Schulze et al.,
important to address the challenges associated with contamination, cost, 2017).
and quality degradation to optimize the effectiveness of the recycling The widespread application of fossil-based plastics is attributable to
process. their affordability, adaptability, and durability (Pellis et al., 2021).
The recycling rate for plastics in the United States decreased from 9 Nevertheless, their enduring presence in the ecosystem aids in the
% in 2012 to 8.7 % in 2018 (Gourmelon, 2015), suggesting that recy development of persistent pollutants and the buildup of PW. Because of
cling continues to be a problem despite technological advancements. On their resistance to degradation, fossil-based plastics may negatively
the contrary, Sarker (2011) found that 60 % of the aggregate plastics
Fig. 4. The plastic recycling process and steps to transform plastic waste into new products.
7
Fig. 5. Life cycle assessment of fossil-based plastic (A) and bioplastic (B) showing the production, end-of-life options, and environmental impacts.
impact ecosystems, marine life, and human health (Walker and Roth in an effort to reduce emissions, conserve energy, and advance long-term
man, 2020). The EoL scenarios of bioplastics vary in accordance with sustainability (Abad-Segura et al., 2020).
their composition. Certain bioplastics are engineered to undergo
particular processes, such as anaerobic digestion or industrial decom 5. Plastics’ life-cycle impacts
position, in order to achieve compostability or biodegradability (Fig. 5).
Consumer education and the establishment of effective waste manage 5.1. Environmental impact
ment infrastructure are critical components in promoting the proper EoL
treatment of bioplastics (Dilkes-Hoffman et al., 2019). The environmental impact of plastic products is measured in tons of
Fossil-based plastics contribute to GHG emissions, depletion of fossil CO2 equivalent per ton of plastic (Roy et al., 2022). Environmental
fuel resources, and long-lasting pollution. In contrast, bioplastics have damage caused by the production and disposal of plastics is contingent
the potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and lower GHG emissions not only on the plastic’s properties but also on the method of disposal
during production (Sheldon and Norton, 2020). Some bioplastics can employed (Kalali et al., 2023). LCA has emerged as an indispensable
biodegrade under specific conditions, which can mitigate long-term instrument in recent decades for assessing the ecological impacts of
pollution. However, the environmental impact of bioplastics is influ material cycles and chemical processes. LCA offers a comprehensive
enced by various factors such as feedstock cultivation practices, energy structure for assessing waste management approaches, identifying
sources, waste management systems, and EoL treatment (Van Roijen and pivotal junctures in the waste treatment hierarchy, and identifying lo
Miller, 2022). Conducting a thorough LCA requires detailed data specific cations that have substantial environmental impacts (Mirabella et al.,
to the type of plastic, production methods, and regional considerations. 2019). LCA assesses potential environmental impacts and burdens
LCAs can provide valuable insights into the overall environmental per associated with processes through the compilation of an inventory of
formance of different plastics, helping inform sustainable inputs and outputs and the interpretation of study results (Beylot et al.,
decision-making (Ali et al., 2022). Circular economy and LCA are critical 2020). Due to the financial burdens associated with PW management,
for plastic recovery as global plastic production increases (Schwarz numerous countries and communities opt to dispose of it in open land
et al., 2021). Since the industrial revolution, the prevailing economic fills. Consequently, a surplus of plastic commodities accumulates. PW
system has generated waste. This unsustainable system gives rise to requires more space in landfills as a result of its greater mass compared
various challenges, including depletion of resources and escalating to other organic waste. It is worth noting that only 9.5 % of the overall
emissions (Andrews, 2015). Countries such as Canada, China, Finland, plastic output generated between 1950 and 2015 has been recycled,
France, Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom are with 12.5 % being incinerated and the remaining 78 % being deposited
already promoting the concept of circular economy. Furthermore, China in landfills (Geyer et al., 2017).
took the initiative to implement the concept of circular economy in 2008 Developing a more comprehensive evaluation of the environmental
with the aim of conserving energy, minimising petrol emissions, and impact of alternative waste management systems is facilitated by LCA, a
promoting a sustainable development (Korhonen et al., 2018). technique that may prove beneficial to industries (Mayer et al., 2019).
Overall, the inadvertent discharge of PW into the environment, At present, a multitude of chemical recycling technologies, such as
specifically in marine environments, presents a substantial concern. depolymerization, pyrolysis, gasification, and incineration, are under
Significant quantities of PW, including PE, have been detected in marine going investigation and advancement (Li et al., 2022). Depolymerization
ecosystems, resulting in contamination of the environment (Bhuyan is a process that converts polymers into monomers. The remaining
et al., 2021). Circular economy has been proposed as a solution to this technologies utilize thermal decomposition at temperatures exceeding
problem; its objective is to reform the plastics value chain and reduce 500 ◦ C to convert plastics back into basic compounds (Grigore, 2017).
GHG emissions. In spite of disposal, PW may be repurposed into Pyrolysis is considered to be one of the chemical recycling technologies
high-value products through the use of green chemistry and novel that has achieved commercial maturity (Solis and Silveira, 2020). The
techniques, such as biotechnology and mechanical processes (Zhang pyrolysis process involves subjecting a mixture of PW with a low thermal
et al., 2022). The circular economy and LCA are indispensable for plastic value (44 MJ/kg) to heat in the absence of oxygen. This causes the
recovery and the transition to a more sustainable economic system. A polymers to decompose into vapors that are rich in saturated hydro
number of countries have already adopted the circular economy strategy carbons (Lopez et al., 2017). The process of incineration harnesses
8
energy from waste combustion to produce vapor, which is subsequently political views or agendas, geographical settings, environmental regu
utilized in the generation of heat and/or electricity. At temperatures lations, or cost, in addition to the application of distinct normalization
between 800 and 1600 ◦ C, the waste is burned in the incinerator’s techniques that produce distinct results. The system boundaries and
furnace (Nidoni, 2017). Pyrolysis-gasification is a cutting-edge thermal weighting factors that are taken into account during the analysis intro
remediation method. The waste is compressed during the pyrolysis duce prejudice into the LCA results.
phase in a reductive zone at 600 ◦ C with limited oxygen (Chai et al., LCA is a developed instrument for determining the magnitude of
2020). After bringing the temperature to 2000 ◦ C through the addition environmental contamination and analyzing the burdens that have been
of oxygen and natural gas, the high-temperature gasification stage oxi avoided as a result of waste management processes. The environmental
dizes inorganic compounds, resulting in the formation of a particulate effects of PW are further mitigated through thermochemical post-
mineral residue that may be recycled or disposed of in a landfill (Chai treatments, such as gasification, incineration, or pyrolysis, as opposed
et al., 2020). to landfilling (Amalina et al., 2022). Furthermore, bio-oil and char with
The environmental consequences of various end-of-life processing a high calorific value are produced through pyrolysis; these by-products
methods for PW have been the subject of numerous LCA studies (Ante can be utilized as fuels for internal plant consumption or as fossil fuel
lava et al., 2019). Eriksson and Finnveden (2009) reported that, land substitutes in other systems. By adhering to the environmental guide
filling non-recyclable PW was frequently a more favorable treatment lines established by ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, pyrolysis facilitates
alternative than incineration in terms of the impact on climate change. the implementation of environmentally sustainable waste management
Based on LCA, incineration of plastic have better environmental out practices (Mahari et al., 2021).
comes to landfill, but are sensitive to credits for avoided electricity
production (Björklund and Finnveden, 2005). In general, mechanical 5.2. Economic impact
recycling was regarded as a more desirable alternative to incineration.
Rajendran et al. (2013) suggested that for mechanical recycling to Approximately 2434 companies processed synthetic polymers in
achieve the same environmental impact as thermal treatment, a mini 2012 for the production of plastic-like goods, employing 77,400 people
mum of 70–80 % of the plastics used must be substituted with virgin and generating $19.6 billion in revenue (Roy et al., 2022). During the
materials. LCA effects of thermal remedies incorporating energy recov year 2014, the waste management sectors in Canada generated revenue
ery are contingent upon a range of factors, such as the geographic of $7 billion, invested approximately $6 billion, and employed over 29,
location, and the electricity composition assumed for system credits 000 individuals. In 2019, however, waste collection expenditures sur
(Antelava et al., 2019). The substitution ratio for virgin material passed $5.9 billion. Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC,
replacement is influenced by the quality of recyclate, which in turn 2019) estimates that the Canadian government spent approximately
impacts the environmental efficacy of recycling. $7.8 billion on PW in 2016 and will spend an additional $11.1 billion by
The majority of LCA studies on plastics recycling mostly emphasized 2030. The global plastic recycling industry was valued at $33 billion in
waste management rather than material recovery for the production of 2020 and is projected to reach $47.3 billion by 2026 (Wood, 2021). PW
diverse products. Gracida-Alvarez et al. (2019) examined the product causes severe economic impacts on marine ecosystems, with an esti
perspective, however their study specifically concentrated on the mated annual cost of $13.0 billion (Roy et al., 2022). The cost of PW
climate change effects of ethylene and propylene monomers. Somoza- management is also affected by disposal techniques. As an example, the
Tornos et al. (2020) examined the production of ethylene and assessed financial damage of burning or dumping home waste is over $300 per
its effects on resource consumption, human health, and ecosystems ton, but when a detailed plan for waste treatment is followed, the
quality. However, their approach of combining these impacts into damage is reduced to even under $100 per ton (Roy et al., 2022). The
broader categories makes it challenging to compare their conclusions annual cost of plastic production all over the world reached $113 billion,
with the more detailed consequences typically published in other and the transportation of plastics reached $53 billion (Awogbemi and
studies. Meys et al. (2020) conducted a recent study wherein they Von Kallon, 2023). Notably, the market value of the products influences
contrasted energy recovery with chemical and mechanical recycling the outputs of an input-output analysis model. By utilizing innovative
through the use of theoretical models that operated under conditions of non-plastic utensils, improving waste management, utilizing more
ideality. Likewise, the LCA studies previously mentioned regarding py fuel-efficient transportation, and utilizing more sustainable energy
rolysis relied on simulation-based approaches instead of data obtained sources, it is possible to decrease these costs. Environmental costs can be
from operational industrial facilities; as a result, their applicability to reduced by 30 % with an improved waste management system. In
real-world conditions may be limited (Zargar et al., 2022). Furthermore, addition, plastic in-land and water pollution had an environmental cost
a lack of consideration for the disparity in output quality was observed of $362 and $626 per ton, respectively (Lord, 2020).
in LCA studies comparing chemical and mechanical recycling, which
could potentially disadvantage alternatives that generate recyclates of 5.3. Social impact
superior quality (Jeswani et al., 2021).
An LCA analysis was conducted by Vienescu et al. (2018) on the MPs stimulate toxicity and carcinogenic phenomena by increasing
utilization of pyrolysis for the production of synthetic fuels. In light of the concentration of phthalic acid esters in the soil as they degrade
the diverse array of environmental impacts that transpire throughout slowly. Therefore, chronic exposure poses a threat to ecosystems and
the synthesis process, analogous LCA investigations must take into ac may have severe consequences for human health (Zhou et al., 2021).
count the promising results. As compared to the diesel and gasoline Increasing environmental and health concerns are also contributing to a
production processes, this results in increased environmental burdens. rise in the consumption of plant-based foods, which could soon pose a
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the environmental and socio grave health risk due to an increase in the ingestion of MPs via fish and
economic trade-offs associated with the materials utilized in system plant foods (Al-Tohamy et al., 2023).
construction and the various allocation methods for pyrolysis An increase in the proportion of organisms capable of ingesting MPs
by-products (Antelava et al., 2019). The LCA was utilized to evaluate PW is accompanied by a decrease in fragment size. Particles smaller than
recovery into recycled materials, energy, and fuels (Khoo, 2019). Me 20 µm have the capacity to traverse cell membranes, rendering them
chanical recycling, pyrolysis, and gasification were among the tech more hazardous (Hale et al., 2020). The possibility that MPs could enter
niques utilized to manage the waste. In light of the relative significance the tissues of diverse biota through the digestive tract, hemolymph, or
of sustainability indicators and environmental impacts, the work em blood has been established. According to Brennecke et al. (2015),
phasizes the normalization and weighting factors for the LCA analysis empirical evidence suggests that MPs have the ability to traverse tissues
(Roesch et al., 2020). Weighting factors may also be impacted by altered of invertebrates, such as mussels and fiddler crabs. Dawson et al. (2018)
9
exposed Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), the main consumer of water, including advanced oxidation processes (Hu et al., 2021), pho
phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean, to 30 µm diameter fluorescent PE tocatalysis (Jiao et al., 2020), membrane filtration (Ding et al., 2021),
microbeads. The average size of particles obtained from the krill and and bioremediation (Tang and Hadibarata, 2022). MPs can undergo
their feces was observed to be in the range of 6 to 7 µm. Particles with a degradation in nature through various mechanisms, as illustrated in
size less than 1 µm were observed to have penetrated the digestive Fig. 6. Photocatalysis, for instance, uses light energy and catalysts to
organ. An examination of multiple finfish species revealed that MPs facilitate the degradation of MPs. Titanium dioxide, as one of the pho
accumulate in the alimentary tract, muscle, and gills, and with particle tocatalysts, is capable of producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) when
size-dependent distributions between organs (Cattaneo et al., 2023). exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Sacco et al. (2023) report that
MPs consumption by birds impairs their food absorption, develop these ROS oxidize MPs into small fragments that can be further miner
ment, and reproductive systems, threatening their survival (Susanti alized into non-toxic compounds (e.g., CO2 and H2O). Microorganisms
et al., 2020). Consumption of substances stored in plastic particles (including bacteria, fungi, and algae) are also capable of degrading MPs
causes metabolic problems, sterilization, inflammation, and even mor (Fig. 6). Various microorganisms possess enzymes capable of breaking
tality to all living organisms (Kik et al., 2020). The wheat grains grown down specific types of plastics (Amobonye et al., 2021; Othman et al.,
on farms contaminated with MP (containing 4.1–12.6 mg/kg of phthalic 2021). MPs are broken down into simpler compounds by enzymes. These
acid esters) had a potential carcinogenic impact on humans as they compounds can then be used by microorganisms or in other metabolic
surpassed the recommended consumption amount of phthalic acid es processes in the environment (Shao et al., 2019). The end products of
ters. According to Shi et al. (2019), contaminated wheat grains had the biodegradation can be recycled or mineralized (Fig. 6).
most negative impact on children, who were the most susceptible to Mechanical degradation involves physical processes that break down
non-carcinogenic effects. In addition to influencing economic matters, MPs into smaller pieces. This can occur through natural forces like wave
MPs also exert a direct influence on the physical and emotional action, erosion, and abrasion (Guo et al., 2020). Over time, these me
well-being of individuals, particularly in coastal regions (Fleming et al., chanical forces fragment MPs into smaller particles, increasing their
2019). surface area and promoting further degradation (Fig. 6). The resulting
Sharp debris that becomes entangled in fishing hooks and nets, as particles can be collected and processed for recycling (Chen et al., 2019).
well as exposure to contaminated areas, can cause a variety of injuries to Furthermore, advanced oxidation processes utilize powerful oxidants,
marine personnel and visitors. According to Wyles et al. (2016), an in such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, peroxymonosulfate, or hydroxyl
dividual’s psychological well-being and mood may be adversely affected radicals, to degrade MPs (Nguyen et al., 2022). As depicted in Fig. 6,
by their presence at a polluted seashore. Conversely, refraining from these oxidants react with MPs, breaking down their polymer chains and
their visits on account of the unfavorable health conditions therein may ultimately transforming them into smaller, more easily degradable
impede social interactions and physical activity (Papathanasopoulou fragments. The degraded fragments can then be recycled or mineralized.
et al., 2016). The Lolium genus comprises an extensive array of species Thermal degradation of PE does not occur at temperatures below
that inhabit diverse ecological niches (Suzukawa et al., 2021). It is 100 ◦ C in the absence of sunshine. However, photo-oxidation serves to
concerning that the most problematic grass weeds, Lollium spp., thrive activate chain reactions (Fig. 7A). Typically, photo-oxidation com
despite the presence of MPs, even during periods of drought, due to their mences with the formation of ROS when an excited state in PE extracts
intense competition for growth space. The possibility of biodiversity hydrogen from the plastic scaffold. The subsequent reaction is primarily
limitation remains as long as MPs pollution cannot be mitigated. characterized by the alkyl radical reacting with oxygen to generate
Therefore, it is critical to identify viable solutions to MP contamination peroxy radicals, which extract hydrogen to produce hydroperoxide and
in our ecosystems in order to strive toward a more sustainable society. a fresh alkyl radical, after the bimolecular radical recombination
termination phase (Erdmann et al., 2020). As illustrated in Fig. 7B,
6. Remediation approaches to mitigate microplastics Norrish type I includes the formation of radicals as a result of the
breakage of the C-C bond, which participates in internal reactions that
Several approaches have been used to mitigate MPs from soil and result in further fragmentation. However, hydrogen abstraction occurs
Fig. 6. Various remediation mechanisms of microplastics.
10
Fig. 7. Thermal degradation and photo-oxidation of plastic. Polyethylene degradation via photo and thermal conditions (A). Photodegradation of polyethylene via
Norrish type I & II mechanisms (B). Environmental decomposition of polyethylene terephthalate via photo-oxidation, hydrolysis, and thermal oxidation (C).
in Norrish type II, which yields ketones and vinylidenes (Sang et al., (Fotopoulou and Karapanagioti, 2017).
2020). When exposed to UV radiation, PET photodegrades, resulting in The rate of microbial degradation of plastic is given in Table 1.
bond cleavage via Norrish type I or II processes, as illustrated in Fig. 7C. Initially, microbes induce physical degradation; subsequently, they
This induces substantial alterations in physical and mechanical prop employ exoenzymes to fragment polymers into oligomers and mono
erties as a result of the assault of ROS. Ester groups attached to the mers; incorporate molecules into microbial metabolism; and ultimately,
terephthalate and CH2 groups are the principal mediators of PET pho oxidize metabolites (Ali et al., 2021a; Zheng et al., 2005). The intro
todegradation (Ding et al., 2022). The hydrolytic process of PET in the duction of oxygen by oxygenases (exoenzymes) into polymers weakens
natural environment is unknown. However, water is thought to pene their long chains and produces alcohol, peroxyl, and carboxylic com
trate into the amorphous region of PET, triggering hydrolysis. Different pounds. These chemicals are subsequently mineralized and assimilated
factors including, shape, crystallinity, humidity, and temperature, have via microbial metabolism (Shao et al., 2019). By integrating existing
an impact on this process. Carboxylic acids, alcohols, ethylene glycolate, physical and chemical pre-treatment processes and decomposing the
and terephthalate are produced during hydrolysis (Fig. 7C). majority of petroleum-based polymers, Ali et al. (2021a) suggested an
Carbon-centered radicals combine with oxygen to generate peroxy industrial reactor to enhance biological treatment. Initially, the plastic
radicals, which then abstract hydrogen, yielding hydroperoxide undergoes a non-living mechanism-mediated degradation process,
11
Table 1
Microbial degradation of different plastic types.
Plastic type Microbial species Isolation source Biodegradation rate Time References
LDPE • Aspergillus niger ND 26.15 % 55 days DSouza et al. (2021)

• A. flavus
• A. oryzae
PHA Members of Bacillaceae, Marine environment ND Weeks to de Vogel et al. (2021)
Rhodobacteraceae, and Vibrionaceae months
families
LDPE • Diaporthe italiana ND • C. fructicola showed a 90 days Khruengsai et al. (2021)
• Thyrostroma jaczewskii biodegradation rate of 48.78 %
• Collectotrichum fructicola • A. niger showed a
• Stagonosporopsis citrulli biodegradation rate of 28.78 %
• A. niger
LDPE • Aspergillus carbonarius MH 856457.1 Landfills sites ND ND El-Sayed et al. (2021)
• A. fumigatus MF 276893
PET Ideonella sakaiensis 201-F6 Sediment samples ND ND Taniguchi et al. (2019)
HDPE, PS, PP, • Penicillium raperi Soil, sludge, worms’ excreta 5.5 % 30, 100, and Taghavi et al. (2021)
and PET • flavus 270 days
• P. glaucoroseum
• Pseudomonas sp.
PE, PU, and • Penicillium sp. Antarctica • Penicillium sp.: 90 days Oviedo-Anchundia et al.
PS • Geomyces sp. 28.3 % in PU, 8.39 % in PS, 3.53 % (2021)
in PE
• Geomyces sp.:
2.08 % in PS without aging
pretreatment
LDPE, and • Brevibacillus spp. Sewage treatment plants and LDPE film: 58.21 % 140 days Skariyachan et al. (2018)
HDPE • Aneurinibacillus sp. waste management landfills HDPE film: 46.6 %
PET Ideonella sakaiensis Bottle-recycling facility ND 18 h Yoshida et al. (2016)
LDPE; low-density polyethylene, PHA; polyhydroxyalkanoate, PET; polyethylene terephthalate, HDPE; high-density polyethylene,
PS; polystyrene, PP; polypropylene.
resulting in the formation of smaller polymers, oligomers, and mono marine microalgae Dunaliella salina was promoted without affecting cell
mers (Zhang et al., 2021). In contrast, the preceding stage involves morphology when exploring the impact of MPs on algal cells (Chae et al.,
diverse chemical or UV methods that facilitate microbial proliferation 2019; Chia et al., 2020). The growth of Raphidocelis subcapitata was
on the produced molecules (Kharaziha et al., 2021). A plausible sub significantly higher in media containing plastic microbeads as compared
strate for microbial cultivation can be generated by combining these to the control (Canniff and Hoang, 2018). LDPE polymer was entirely
substances with sugars derived from wastes in order to modify carbon degraded by lignin-degrading enzymes produced by yeast species iso
and nitrogen sources to promote microbial development (Srivastava lated from termite intestines (Sterigmatomyces halophilus, Meyerozyma
et al., 2021). The hydrolysate after pretreatment can be exposed to the guilliermondii, and Meyerozyma caribbica) (Elsamahy et al., 2023). The
anaerobic digestion process, during which methanogens generate ability of plastic-eating waxworm-isolated Citrobacter freundii and Ba
methane gas (Ali et al., 2019). cillus sp. to degrade LDPE polymer and mineralize it into CO2 and H2O
Insects and their gut symbionts also play an important role in plastic was demonstrated (Ali et al., 2023b).
biodegradtion (Bilal et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2023). For instance, The main differences between fossil-based plastic and bioplastic in
earthworms have the ability to decompose low-density polyethylene terms of their environmental, economic, and social impacts are given in
(LDPE), as evidenced by the reduction in its size after one month Table 2. Biodegradable polymers are believed to have lower toxicity
(Lwanga et al., 2018). This suggests that earthworms may play a role in compared to fossil-based plastic and are completely responsive to
the process of plastic decomposition. The photosynthetic activity of biodegradation (Mastropetros et al., 2022; Pires et al., 2022). Therefore,
Table 2
Fossil-based plastic and bioplastic in terms of their environmental, economic, and social impacts.
Plastic Environmental impact Economic impact Social impact References
type
Fossil- • Derived from non- • Relatively low cost • Limited job creation Anunciado et al. (2021),Lord (2020),Roy et al. (2022)
based renewable fossil due to abundant in the fossil fuel
plastic fuels. feedstock. industry.
• High greenhouse gas • Established • Environmental
emissions during infrastructure for pollution and health
production. production and use. concerns.
• Persistence in the • Costly waste • Potential for
environment for management and negative impact on
centuries. disposal. communities.
Bioplastic • Derived from • Potential for cost • Job creation in Ali et al. (2022),Ali et al. (2023a),Chia et al. (2020),Thakur et al. (2018)
renewable resources. competitiveness with agriculture and
• Lower greenhouse scale. manufacturing.
gas. emissions during • Potential for local • Potential for
production. sourcing and reduced sustainable rural
• Biodegradable under dependence. development.
specific conditions. • Opportunities for • Reduced litter and
innovation and new environmental
markets. contamination.
12
the utilization of bioplastic-producing microorganisms could potentially studies frequently prioritise the examination of recycling alternatives
serve as a feasible remedy for MP pollution (Jiménez et al., 2022). rather than exploring alternative materials (Bishop et al., 2021).
Microbeads derived from bioplastics in the field of cosmetology have Furthermore, the extent of the influence of plastic items is mostly
superior cleansing capabilities compared to microbeads made of regular determined by the duration and frequency of consumer usage, as well as
PE. These bioplastic microbeads completely dissolve in H2O, CO2, and the chosen methods of EoL treatment options (Pellengahr et al., 2023).
biomass without adverse effects on plants (Ju et al., 2021). The devel
opment of biodegradable plastic polymers and engineered microbes 8. Conclusions and future perspectives
capable of efficiently converting plastic particles (biodegradable or
synthetic plastics) and mineralizing them is essential for MP remedia PW has become unavoidable for human society, with considerable
tion. Consequently, bioremediation might be an ecologically sound adverse effects on our ecosystem. MPs have a substantially detrimental
approach to mitigating PW pollution. On the other hand, microorgan impact on natural habitats’ ecological processes. Despite current data on
isms can degrade and mineralizeplastic polymer particles into H2O, CO2, plastic pollution, the management plan is inadequate, particularly in
and CH4. developing countries. Combustion and disposal in landfills or in nature
without control or restrictions are all conventional disposal techniques
7. Challenges and gaps in plastic life cycle assessment that only provoke danger to various life forms. This review paper
thoroughly summarizes plastic pollution’s ecological, environmental,
Existing LCA studies do not address the environmental, ecological, or and socioeconomic impacts. It is imperative to emphasize the need to
human health impacts of MPs and plastic degradation by-products. In adopt circularity principles in the management of useless plastics and
marine and freshwater ecosystems, MPs are prevalent (Ivleva et al., shift from a linear economy to a circular model that incorporates recy
2017; Wang et al., 2021). However, little is known about the impacts of cling either with chemicals or mechanical equipment. The magnitude of
MPs on health (MacLeod et al., 2021). MPs have the potential to plastic pollution is such that it should be recognized as a worldwide
transport contaminants up the food chain and accumulate in the tissues concern that needs to be tackled with measures similar to those imple
of organisms as a result of their composition and relatively large surface mented to face climate change, COVID-19, and other healthcare issues.
area (Huang et al., 2021). Research in the area of plastic degradation Due to the increasing presence of plastics in the environment and the
comprehension is still in its infancy and numerous degradation path growing demand for them, there is an imperative need for the ability to
ways must be considered. Numerous synergistic pathways are followed comprehend the environmental impacts of plastics throughout their life
by weathering, which is challenging to model in an LCA study due to the cycles. Based on this review paper, the following points are
diversity of pollution-induced damages (e.g., alterations to ecotoxicity, recommended:
alterations to the nutrient and carbon cycles, and societal impacts)
(MacLeod et al., 2021). • Rapid and dependable LCA of plastics requires the development of a
Although additives are crucial components of plastics products, their set of reference LCIs for key plastics materials. It is essential that
coverage in LCA studies is inadequate (Bishop et al., 2021). There are interoperability and compatibility with widely used, extant LCI da
numerous reasons why incorporating compounds into LCA for plastics tabases be ensured during the development of such reference LCIs. It
products is difficult. There are numerous potential constituents, all of is imperative to develop LCIs for non-plastic products that incorpo
which cannot be covered by a generalized LCA. Additionally, certain rate information on plastic emissions into the environment, in
additives will alter the product’s characteristics, which must be addition to LCIs for plastics.
accounted for in the cradle-to-grave LCA in order to produce accurate • It is difficult to quantify the environmental impacts of plastics-using
results. The final destination of the additives is also determined by the products due to the lack of knowledge regarding the amount of
EoL treatment of the product, which influences the impact of plastic plastics that enter the environment throughout their life cycles. The
additives (Chea et al., 2023). Conversely, additives, particularly fillers, implementation of standardization protocols for materiality criteria,
might restrict the EoL alternatives available for plastics products EoL phases, and system boundary definitions is highly recommended
(Sommerhuber et al., 2017). An illustration of this can be seen in the in conjunction with this endeavour. Regional resource utilization
tendency of the industry to incinerate plastics that contain a significant and geographical context have a substantial impact on LCI data.
amount of filler, as the separation and recycling of these materials is • The development of an open-source data exchange platform has the
challenging. Due to the significant absence of EoL in plastics LCA potential to streamline the data collection procedure and foster
studies, it is challenging to quantify the effects of additives with greater cooperation within the global plastics industry. Working
precision. groups at the federal level would aid in standardising and coordi
There is currently no publicly accessible instrument that enables nating executive branch efforts on plastics LCA.
researchers and manufacturers to compile dependable LCIs of plastics. • For the development of use phase and EoL phase scenarios, it is
When attempting to develop an LCI for a novel plastics material or crucial to comprehend the service life of a product. It would be
product in the absence of publicly available background data, this issue possible to facilitate synergies by conducting an inventory of ongoing
becomes especially complex. Interoperability and compatibility across research that may be pertinent to LCA research and by informing
technological, geographical, and temporal boundaries may present relevant researchers of the requirements of LCA practitioners early
further obstacles when utilizing pre-existing LCI data, given that the on in such projects.
majority of these studies solely offer outcomes for particular parameters. • Efforts should be made to reduce landfilling and the disposal of PW in
Indeed, the capacity to modify such parameters would significantly marine environments. A considerable dependence on incineration
enhance the efficacy of the decision-making procedure. and landfilling results in a significant negative impact on any
Plastic LCAs may have limitations and can be prone to misuse ecosystem.
(Woods et al., 2021). Many LCAs of plastics fail to include the EoL phase, • Nations must prioritize certain bioplastics as an alternative while
which results in plastics being favoured as a material choice, despite the imposing restrictions and surcharges on petroleum-based plastic. It is
fact that they may continue to degrade and release harmful substances also critical to encourage green packaging methods, which will
into the environment (Bucknall, 2020). In addition, our understanding significantly alleviate the use of petroleum-based polymers.
of the complete range of environmental, human, and ecological health • Developing a life-cycle screening tool that pertains specifically to the
effects caused by plastics and their breakdown by-products is incom life cycle of plastics and allows for the modification of EoL treatment
plete. This lack of knowledge hinders our capacity to analyse the impact is a significant opportunity. Plastics manufacturers could enhance
of plastics using LCA methods. Several research indicate that LCA their decision-making process regarding product design by utilising
13
this tool. Users would be able to input pertinent data including Ali, S.S., Sun, J., 2015. Physico-chemical pretreatment and fungal biotreatment for park
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Declaration of Competing Interest environmental bottleneck caused by plastics? A critical state-of-the-art review.
J. Environ. Manag. 326, 116606.
Al-Tohamy, R., Ali, S.S., Zhang, M., Elsamahy, T., Abdelkarim, E.A., Jiao, H., Sun, S.,
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence
Sun, J., 2023b. Environmental and human health impact of disposable face masks
of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a during the COVID-19 pandemic: wood-feeding termites as a model for plastic
potential conflict of interest. biodegradation. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 195, 2093–2113.
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Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 271 (2024) 115942

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety

A critical review on plastic waste life cycle assessment and management:

Fig. 1. Microplastic origin, fate, transport and proposed solution strategies.

Fig. 6. Various remediation mechanisms of microplastics.

LDPE • Aspergillus niger ND 26.15 % 55 days DSouza et al. (2021)

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