UNIT -1 & 2 – 2 MARKS

COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to a set of
instructions (software) to perform various tasks. It can execute a wide range of
operations, including calculations, data manipulation, and information retrieval.
Computers consist of hardware (physical components like the CPU, memory,
and storage) and software (programs and operating systems). They are used for
tasks ranging from simple calculations to complex simulations and data
analysis.
C -Common
O - Operating System
M - Machine
P - Purposely
U - Used for
T - Technologies
E - Education and
R – Research

MICRO COMPUTER
Definition: A microcomputer is a small, personal computer designed for
individual use. It has a microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU).
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Definition: Mainframe computers are large, powerful systems designed to
handle and process vast amounts of data and transactions simultaneously. They
have high processing power and can support many users at the same time.
BASIC OPERATION OF COMPUTER
The basic operations of a computer are fundamental processes that enable it to
perform tasks and execute programs. These operations are commonly
categorized into four primary functions: Input, Processing, Output, and Storage.
DATA

Definition: Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts and figures that alone do not
provide context or meaning. It consists of individual elements that, when
processed, can be used to generate information.

INFORMATION

Definition: Information is data that has been processed, organized, or structured

in a way that makes it meaningful and useful. It provides context and can be
used for decision-making or understanding.

COMPILER

Definition: A compiler is a special program that translates code written in a

high-level programming language (like C, C++, or Java) into machine code or
an intermediate code that the computer's hardware can execute directly. This
translation process is done in a single batch or "compile" phase.

ASSEMBLER
Definition: An assembler is a program that translates assembly language code (a
low-level language closely related to machine code) into machine code.
Assembly language uses mnemonic codes and symbols that are more
understandable than binary machine code.

INTERPRETER

Definition: An interpreter is a program that translates high-level programming

code into machine code line-by-line or statement-by-statement, executing it
directly without producing a separate executable file. This process is done at
runtime.

ROM (READ-ONLY MEMORY)

Definition: ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that is used to store firmware

or software that is rarely changed. Data stored in ROM is not lost when the
computer is powered off.

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)

Definition: RAM is a type of volatile memory used for temporarily storing data
and instructions that are actively being used or processed by the CPU. Data in
RAM is lost when the power is turned off.

SOFTWARE

Software is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a computer

how to perform specific tasks. It includes applications, operating systems, and
other systems that enable hardware to function and users to accomplish various
functions.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

The application of software refers to the use of programs and applications to

perform specific tasks or solve particular problems. Examples include word
processors for document creation, spreadsheets for data analysis, and web
browsers for accessing the internet. Essentially, software applications are
designed to help users accomplish various functions and improve efficiency in
various fields.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a type of software designed to manage and control computer

hardware and provide a platform for running application software. It includes
operating systems (like Windows, macOS, or Linux) and utility programs that
perform tasks such as managing files, system resources, and hardware
components.
HARDWARE

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can
touch and see. It includes devices such as the computer's central processing unit
(CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. These
components work together to enable the operation of software and perform
computing tasks.

Input devices are hardware components that allow users to enter data or
commands into a computer. Examples include keyboards, mice, and scanners.

Output devices are hardware components that display or produce the results of
computer processes. Examples include monitors, printers, and speakers.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER ARE:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer that

performs calculations and executes instructions.
2. Motherboard: The main circuit board that houses the CPU, memory, and
other essential components, and allows them to communicate with each
other.
3. Memory (RAM): Temporary storage that holds data and instructions
currently being used by the CPU.
4. Storage: Devices like hard drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs)
that store data and programs permanently.
5. Power Supply Unit (PSU): Provides electrical power to the computer's
components.
6. Input Devices: Hardware like keyboards, mice, and scanners used to
input data into the computer.
7. Output Devices: Hardware like monitors, printers, and speakers used to
output data from the computer.
8. Cooling System: Fans or liquid cooling systems that prevent overheating
of the computer's components.
9. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Handles rendering of images and
video, especially important for gaming and graphic-intensive tasks.

THE CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT) CONSISTS OF SEVERAL

KEY COMPONENTS:

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

1. Control Unit (CU): Directs and coordinates the operations of the CPU
by fetching, decoding, and executing instructions.
2. Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold data
and instructions temporarily during processing.
3. Cache: A small, high-speed memory that stores frequently accessed data
and instructions to speed up processing. These components work together
to execute instructions and manage the operations of a computer.
 UNIT 1 & 2 – 5MARKS AND 10 MARKS Question answers

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A COMPILER AND AN

INTERPRETER:

Aspect Compiler Interpreter

Translates the entire source Translates and executes code
Definition code into machine code or line-by-line or statement-by-
intermediate code at once. statement.
Translates code during
Performs translation in a single
Translation execution, one line or
batch or compile phase.
statement at a time.
Does not produce an
Generates an executable file executable file; code is
Execution
that can be run independently. executed directly by the
interpreter.
Identifies syntax and semantic Detects and reports errors
Error
errors during the compile phase during execution; errors must
Detection
before execution. be fixed and code re-executed.
Typically results in faster Generally slower because
Execution
execution since the translation translation and execution
Speed
is completed before execution. happen simultaneously.
Debugging can be more Easier to debug as errors are
Debugging challenging due to the separate reported immediately during
compile and execution phases. execution.
Generally uses less memory
May use more memory
Memory for code execution, as it does
because it needs to store the
Usage not require an additional
entire compiled code.
compiled file.
Can lead to longer
Allows for faster development
Development development cycles due to the
cycles with immediate
Time need for complete compilation
feedback from the interpreter.
before testing.
C, C++, Java (though Java uses
Use Case a combination of compilation
Python, JavaScript, Ruby.
Examples to bytecode and interpretation
by JVM).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MACHINE LANGUAGE AND ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE:

Aspect Machine Language Assembly Language

The lowest-level
A low-level programming
programming language,
language using mnemonic codes
Definition consisting of binary or
and symbols that correspond to
hexadecimal code directly
machine language instructions.
executed by the CPU.
Mnemonics and symbols that
Binary code (0s and 1s) or represent machine language
Representation
hexadecimal format. instructions (e.g., MOV, ADD,
SUB).
More readable and
Difficult to read and
understandable due to its use of
Readability understand due to its binary
symbolic names and
nature.
mnemonics.
Easier to write and debug
Difficult to write and debug
compared to machine language
Ease of Use because of its complexity and
due to its use of human-readable
low-level nature.
mnemonics.
Requires an assembler to
Direct Directly executed by the
translate assembly code into
Execution CPU without any translation.
machine code for execution.
Error-prone and challenging Easier to spot and correct errors
Error Detection to identify and fix due to its thanks to symbolic
low-level nature. representation.
Generally longer Shorter development time
Development development time due to the compared to machine language
Time complexity of coding in due to higher readability and
binary. easier debugging.
The instruction set is
The instruction set is specific represented by mnemonics that
Instruction Set to the hardware and is not correspond to machine
human-readable. instructions, which are easier to
understand.
Often used in system
Typically used in very
programming, low-level
specialized or embedded
Use Cases programming, and scenarios
systems where direct control
requiring direct hardware
of hardware is necessary.
manipulation.
HOW THE CPU AND MEMORY WORK TOGETHER IS CRUCIAL TO
GRASPING HOW COMPUTERS PERFORM TASKS. HERE’S A
DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THEIR INTERACTION:

1. Overview of CPU and Memory

 CPU (Central Processing Unit): The brain of the computer, responsible

for executing instructions, performing calculations, and managing data
flow.
 Memory: Stores data and instructions that the CPU needs to access.
Memory can be categorized into different types:
o RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for
temporary storage of data and instructions that are actively being
used or processed.
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory that contains
firmware or system software that is not typically changed during
normal operation.
o Cache: A small, high-speed memory located inside or close to the
CPU to speed up access to frequently used data and instructions.

2. Interaction Between CPU and Memory

A. Fetching Instructions

1. Program Counter (PC): The CPU uses the Program Counter to keep track
of which instruction it needs to execute next. The PC holds the address of
the next instruction in memory.
2. Memory Addressing: The CPU sends a request to the memory using the
address in the Program Counter to fetch the instruction.
3. Fetching: The instruction is retrieved from RAM (or cache, if the
instruction is cached) and loaded into the Instruction Register (IR) in the
CPU.

B. Decoding Instructions

1. Instruction Register (IR): Holds the fetched instruction.

2. Instruction Decoder: The CPU decodes the instruction in the IR. The
decoder translates the instruction into control signals that determine
which operation needs to be performed.

C. Executing Instructions

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes arithmetic and logical operations

as specified by the decoded instruction. For example, if the instruction is
to add two numbers, the ALU performs this operation.
2. Registers: Intermediate data and results of operations are temporarily
stored in registers.

D. Writing Back Results

 1. Registers or Memory: The result of the ALU operation is written back to
a register or to a specific location in memory, depending on the
instruction.
2. Memory Write Operation: If the instruction requires writing data to
memory, the CPU sends the data to the specified memory address.

E. Managing Data

1. Cache Memory: Frequently accessed data and instructions are kept in the
cache to speed up retrieval. The cache is checked before accessing the
main RAM.
2. Data Path: The data path facilitates the transfer of data between the ALU,
registers, and memory.

3. Data Flow Example

1. Loading a Program:
o The program is loaded into RAM from storage (e.g., hard drive or
SSD).
o The Program Counter (PC) is set to the starting address of the
program.
2. Execution Cycle:
o The CPU fetches the instruction at the address pointed to by the
PC.
o The fetched instruction is decoded and executed.
o If the instruction involves data, the CPU fetches the data from
memory or cache, processes it, and stores the result back in
memory or a register.
o The Program Counter is updated to point to the next instruction.
3. Repeat:
o This process repeats in a cycle for each instruction until the
program completes.

Diagram of CPU and Memory Interaction

Here’s a simplified diagram showing the interaction between the CPU and
memory:
Explanation of the Diagram

 Memory: Contains the program and data.

 CPU: Executes instructions, performs calculations, and manages data
flow.
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs computations.
 Registers: Temporary storage for data and instructions.
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the CPU.
 Cache: Stores frequently accessed data for quick access.
 Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the address of the next instruction.
 I/O Devices: Interfaces through which the computer interacts with the
external environment.

The CPU and memory work together through a continuous cycle of fetching,
decoding, executing, and storing data to perform computing tasks efficiently.
LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGES AND HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES:

Aspect Low-Level Language High-Level Language

Abstraction Close to hardware; High abstraction; closer to
Level minimal abstraction. human language.
Examples Assembly, Machine Code Python, Java, C++
Harder to read, write, and
Easier to read, write, and
Ease of Use
understand. understand.
Generally faster due to Slower compared to low-level
Execution Speed
direct hardware control.due to abstraction.
Automatic memory
Memory Manual management of
management (e.g., garbage
Management memory and resources.
collection).
Less portable; often More portable across different
Portability
specific to hardware. systems.
More prone to errors; Easier to debug with advanced
Error Detection
debugging is complex. error detection tools.
Development Longer development time Shorter development time due
Time due to complexity. to high-level abstractions.

This table highlights the fundamental differences between low-level and high-
level programming languages in terms of their abstraction, usability, and other
characteristics.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE AND SYSTEM SOFTWARE:

Aspect Application Software System Software

Designed to perform specificManages and controls computer
tasks for users, such as hardware and provides a
Purpose
productivity or platform for running application
entertainment. software.
Microsoft Word, Adobe Windows, macOS, Linux, device
Examples
Photoshop, Web browsers. drivers.
Directly interacts with users
Operates in the background,
Interaction to perform tasks like indirectly interacting with users
with Users document editing or web by managing hardware and
browsing. system resources.
Pre-installed with the operating
Installed by users based on
Installation system; generally not modified
their needs or preferences.
frequently.
Frequently updated to add Updated to improve system
Updates features or improve stability, security, and
functionality. compatibility.
Operates independently but
Depends on system software
Dependency provides the foundation for
to function.
application software.
Examples of Word processing, image File management, hardware
Functions editing, web browsing. control, system diagnostics.
This table outlines the key differences between application software and system
software, focusing on their purposes, examples, interactions, and other
characteristics.

EXPLANATION AND DEFINITION OF THE TYPES OF ROM, RAM, AND CACHE

MEMORY:

ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Definition: ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that is used to store firmware or software
that is not intended to be modified frequently. Data stored in ROM is permanent and remains
intact even when the computer is powered off.

Types of ROM:

1. PROM (Programmable ROM):

o Definition: A type of ROM that can be programmed once after
manufacturing. Once written, the data cannot be altered.
o Characteristics: Used for applications where the data does not need to be
changed frequently.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Definition: A type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed multiple
times using ultraviolet (UV) light.
o Characteristics: Data is erased by exposing the chip to UV light and can be
rewritten, making it useful for updating software or firmware.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Definition: A type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed electrically.
No UV light is needed, and data can be rewritten without removing the chip
from the circuit.
o Characteristics: Allows for data modification without physical removal, used
for storing BIOS settings or small amounts of data that need occasional
updating.
4. Flash Memory:
o Definition: A type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in
larger blocks, rather than byte-by-byte.
o Characteristics: Faster and more durable than traditional EEPROM, used in
USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Definition: RAM is a type of volatile memory used for temporary storage while a computer
is running. It allows for quick read and write access to a computer's data and instructions that
are actively used by the CPU.

Types of RAM:

1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

o Definition: A type of RAM that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor,
which needs to be periodically refreshed to maintain data.
o Characteristics: Commonly used as the main memory in computers due to its
relatively low cost per bit but requires constant refreshing.
2. SRAM (Static RAM):
o Definition: A type of RAM that uses flip-flops to store data, which does not
require refreshing.
 Characteristics: Faster and more reliable than DRAM, used in cache memory
o
but more expensive and uses more power.
3. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM):
o Definition: A type of DRAM that is synchronized with the system clock,
allowing for faster access to data compared to traditional DRAM.
o Characteristics: Improved performance over DRAM, used as system memory
in modern computers.
4. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM):
o Definition: A type of SDRAM that transfers data on both the rising and
falling edges of the clock signal, effectively doubling the data rate.
o Characteristics: Includes DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, each offering
improvements in speed and efficiency over its predecessors.

Cache Memory

Definition: Cache memory is a small, high-speed storage area located within or close to the
CPU. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce the time it takes to access
this information from the main memory.

Types of Cache Memory:

1. L1 Cache (Level 1 Cache):

o Definition: The smallest and fastest cache memory, located directly on the
CPU chip.
o Characteristics: Provides rapid access to frequently used instructions and
data, improving CPU performance.
2. L2 Cache (Level 2 Cache):
o Definition: A larger, somewhat slower cache compared to L1, located either
on the CPU chip or close to it on the motherboard.
o Characteristics: Acts as an intermediary between the L1 cache and the main
memory, providing additional cache capacity.
3. L3 Cache (Level 3 Cache):
o Definition: An even larger and slower cache than L2, typically shared among
multiple CPU cores and located on the motherboard or within the CPU
package.
o Characteristics: Enhances overall system performance by caching data used
by multiple cores or processes.

Each type of memory plays a crucial role in the performance and efficiency of a computer
system, from permanent storage in ROM to fast, temporary storage in RAM and cache.