THE UNIVERSITY OF MANILA

College of Criminology

SUBJECT-3 � CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Technology and causes of fire;

Fire Triangle Theory

The graphical representation of the three elements of fire, namely:

Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel.

Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides. There cannot be
fire without all the three parts present in equal proportion.

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish fire:

1. Remove the fuel

2. Cut-off the oxygen supply

3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)

Elements of Fire

1. Heat - a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of

energy, as in combustion or burning.
Heat Sources:

1. Open flame 4. Hot surfaces

2. Electrical circuit 5. Friction
3. Sparks 6. All sources of ignition

2. Oxygen - a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is
approximately 21% by volume.
Oxygen Sources:
Oxygen Requirements
1. 21 % of normal oxygen 1. 12 % - no fire
2. 78 % of nitrogen 2. 14 % - flash point
3. 1 % of other gases 3. 21 % - fire point

3. Fuel - any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.
The most important element of fire.
Fuel Sources:

1. Solid - molecules are closely packed together

2. Liquid - molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas - molecules are free to moved

Fire Tetrahedron
The fire, triangle theory describes the three elements, of a fire as shown in
Figure 1.1. Another explanation of the requirement of combustion uses a four-sided
figure called tetrahedron as shown in Figure 1.2. Both theories are used to explain
what causes fire. The fourth element of the tetrahedron explanation is known as
chemical reactivity, or chemical reaction.
For Combustion to occur, four elements are necessary:

1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent)

2. Fuel
3. Heat
4. Self - sustaining chemical reaction.

These elements can be graphically described as the fire tetrahedron. Each element
of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to occur. This theory is
extremely important to students of fire suppression, prevention, and investigation.
Removing any one of the four elements combustion will not occur. If ignition has
already started, the fire is extinguished, if one of the elements is removed from
the reaction.
Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron:

1. Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxidizing agents are those materials that yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases
during the process of a chemical reaction.

2. Fuel (Reducing Agent)

Fuel is the material or substance being burned in the combustion process.

3. Heat (Temperature)
Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes in contact
with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion process.
Combustion Reactions/Process:

� Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of
ignitable vapors or gases;
� Provides the energy necessary for ignition;
� Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases to
continue the combustion reaction.

Types of Energy: (Common Sources of Heat)

1. Chemical Energy

It is the most common source of heat in combustion reactions. When any combustibles
are in contact with oxygen oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process results
in the production of heat. Examples: Heat generated from a burning match, Self-
heating (spontaneous heating).

2. Electrical Energy

Electrical energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible
materials near the heated area.

3. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear heat energy is generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine
(fusion). Examples:
a. Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity.
b. The solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form of nuclear energy).
4. Mechanical Energy

An energy created by friction and compression.

� Heat of Friction - is the movement of two surfaces against each other. This
movement produced sparks being generated.
� Heat of Compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container
or cylinder.

Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element)

Combustion is a complex reaction that it requires a fuel (gaseous or vapor state),

an oxidizer, and heat to combine in a very specific way. Once flaming starts, it
can only continue when enough heat or energy is produced to cause the continued
chain reaction. Chain reaction is a series of events that occur in sequence with
the results of each individual reaction being added to the rest.

Combustion

Fire and combustion are terms that are often used interchangeably. Technically
speaking, fire is a form of combustion. Combustion is a self-sustaining chemical
reaction producing energy or products that cause more reactions of the same kind.
Combustion is an exothermic reaction. Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidization
process accompanied by the release of heat and light of different intensities. The
time it takes a reaction to occur determines the type of reaction that is observed.

Products of Combustion

Four (4) Categories of products of combustion:

1. Fire gases

� are those that remain when other products of combustion cool to normal
temperature. Common combustibles contain carbon, which forms carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide when burned. Other fire gases include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene, and
hydrogen chloride.

The records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling these super-
heated and toxic fire gases than from any other cause.

The complete combustion of fuels containing carbon will produce CO2, but seldom
will there be enough oxygen for complete combustion. When only part of the carbon
is oxidized, carbon monoxide is formed. While carbon monoxide is not the most toxic
fire gas, it causes mote deaths than any other because robs the body of oxygen

Types of Poisonous Gases:

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

2. Flame
It is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when
mixed with more oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame is
considered a product of incomplete combustion.
It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion.

Nature of Fire
Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually
burn. The vapor given off by a material is the part that burns. When a piece of
wood is ignited, the fire is not from the burning wood, rather, from the vapors
that are given off by the wood. The heat causes the substance in the wood to
vaporize. The heated vapors mix quickly with oxygen in the air and fire results.

This process is known as Pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis

It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the
fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.
The process of Pyrolysis involves the following:

1. The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
2. Decomposition takes place � moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor;
3. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel.
These combustible vapors are technically termed as free radicals;
4. Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is present.

The most common type of free-radicals - (combustible vapors):

1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Nitrogen

Most fires will involve incomplete combustion, producing CO and carbon particles
along with heat, water vapor, and CO2.
A fire involving material other than hydrocarbons and oxygen will produce
combustion products composed of the atoms and molecules forming the material
together with the oxidizer used for the support of the combustion. This is the
reason a poisonous fuel may give off poisonous fumes and smoke.

3. Heat
A form of energy measured in degree of temperature, it is the product of combustion
that spread the fire. It causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat
exhaustion, and respiratory tract injuries. Heat, oxygen depletion, and carbon
monoxide formation are the primary hazards in fires.

4. Smoke
It is the visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, finely divided particles of soot and
carbon, and miscellaneous assortment of product released from the burning material.

Properties of Fire

A. Physical Properties

1. Specific gravity
- the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal volume
of water

2. Vapor density
- the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume of dry air
at the same temperature and pressure

3. Vapor pressure
- the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium.
4. Temperature
- the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given substance;
the measure of the molecular activity within a substance.

5. Boiling point
- the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.

6. Ignition temperature or kindling temperature

- the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order
to initiate or cause self-contained combustion without the addition of heat from
outside sources.

7. Fire point
- the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.
There is usually about 5-to 10� difference between the flashpoint and the firepoint
of most materials. Since these two are just a few degrees apart.

8. Flashpoint
- the temperature at which a material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still
gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to �flash� across the surface. The term
�flashpoint� is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not
it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.

B. Chemical Properties:

1. Endothermic reaction
- are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.

2. Exothermic reaction
- reactions or changes that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy than the reactants.

3. Oxidation
- a chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent
react.

4. Combustion/flame
- the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A matter
that is produced by fire.

Vapor Density

The term used to explain the weight of vapors is �vapor density�. In order to
measure the weight of these vapors we usually compare them to air, which is
considered to have a vapor density of 1.00. Therefore, if we say that a substance
has a vapor density of 1.5; it means that it is on-and-a-half times as heavy as air
under the same conditions of pressure and temperature. If a substance has a vapor
density of .7, it is lighter than air, weighing only 7/10 as much as an equal
volume of air.

Phases of Burning / The Three Stages of Fire

The methods firefighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely on the phase
in which they find the fire.
Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:
1. The amount of time the fire has burned;
2. The ventilation characteristics of the confining structure;
3. The amount and type of combustibles present

Fires generally have three (3) progressive stages based on the above factors:

1. Incipient/Beginning phase - it is the initial stage of fire.

2. Free-Burning Phase - the second phase of burning in which materials or

structures are burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.

3. Smoldering Phase - the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense
smoke and heat completely fill the confined room.

Backdraft

Firefighters operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary measures when

opening a building to gain entry, by providing ventilation either by
horizontal/cross ventilation (opening doors or windows), or vertical ventilation
(opening a hole at the highest portion of the affected part of the building. As the
fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of hot, unburned fire gases can collect
in unventilated spaces. These gases may be at or above their ignition temperature
but have insufficient oxygen available to actually ignite. Any action taken during
fire fighting operations that allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in
an explosive ignition called backdraft.

The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper application of vertical
ventilation causing the unburned gases rise and release through the opening before
an entry is made.
Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft

a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings

b. Black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heat
d. Little or no visible flame
e. Smoke leaving the building in puffs or at intervals
f. Smoke stained windows

Flashover
Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that flames sweep over
the entire surface. Firefighters originally believed that combustible gases
released during the early stages of the fire cause flashover by collecting at the
ceiling and mixing with air until they burst into flames.

Combustible material is grouped into one of four classifications. These classes of

fuel help to simplify firefighting methods and techniques.

Classification of Fire

By knowing the classes of fire a certain material will fall into, you will be able
to make intelligent firefighting decisions.

A. Based on Cause:

1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire
B. Based on Burning Fuel

Four (4) Classes of Fire

1. Class A
Materials involving vegetable fibers, wood, paper straw, grain, and grass;
combustible minerals such as coal and coke. Nearly all thrash fires are considered
as Class A.

2. Class B
Materials including petroleum products such as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating
oils, and greases; animal fats such as butter, lard, and tallow; vegetable extracts
such as alcohol, linseed oil, and turpentine; vegetable compounds such as
shortenings and oleomargarines; natural gases and compressed gases such as butane,
propane, hydrogen, and acetylene.

3. Class C
This type of fire involves electrical motors, electrical appliances and apparatus.
Actually a Class C fire is composed usually of Class A and Class B materials or a
combination of both. Use of water is usually dangerous because of the risk of
electrical shock.

4. Class D
These are materials involving combustible metals, alloys, or metal compounds either
in a solid, semi solid or liquid state. They may further reduce in shavings,
grindings, granules, or dust. Some liquid metals are kept in a liquid state under
pressure. Usually these liquid metals are extremely dangerous. Some of the more
unusual metals are: sodium, magnesium, titanium, sodium potassium, and uranium as
well as pyrophoric organometallic reagents such a alkylithiums, grignards, and
diethylzinc. These type of materials burn at high temperatures and will react
violently with water, air, and/or other chemicals.

Spontaneous Heating

Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start as a result of a chemical

reaction within the material - a reaction independent of any outside source of
heat. Spontaneous heating begins a cycle of oxidation that builds up heat very
slowly in its first stage. The condition that builds up temperature high enough to
cause ignition is called spontaneous heating. At this point, it becomes spontaneous
ignition. In most materials this process develops slowly and does not reach its
ignition point for days or even weeks; consequently, fires may break out today,
that were actually started days before. Usually there is enough air to oxidation,
but not enough air to carry the heat from the area. Some of the common materials
that may spontaneously heated and ignited are animal oils, mixed fish oils, linseed
oil, coal, coke, charcoal, sawdust, hay, grain and cotton.

Propagation of Fire

Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire
propagation will be increased by the transmission of heat by nearby materials. This
condition causes additional vapors to be released thereby spreading the fire.

Types of Heat Transmission:

1. Conduction
It is the transmission of object/medium or conductor, such as pipe, metal, hot air
duct, wire, or even wall.
2. Radiation
The transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning
source. This radiation takes place through the air or through space that cause
another flammable object to ignite.

3. Convection
It is the transmission of heat by the moving currents of liquid or gas. When these
gases or liquids are heated, they start to move within themselves; and by their
free motion, circulation starts.

4. Flame Contact
Heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact. Fire
spreads along or through burning material by flame contact. When a material is
heated to the point where flammable vapors are released, the vapors may be ignited.
Any other flammable material may be heated to its ignition temperature by direct
contact with the flame or burning vapors.

Intensity of Fire

Intensity of fire means simply �how hot the fire is burning.� Some types of fuels
naturally burn hotter (more intensely) than others. For example, a gasoline fire
burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline
flame.

Factors to determine the intensity of fire:

1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present

Explosive Limits
The term �explosive limits� means the amount (expressed in percent) of fuel vapor
that can be mixed with air to form and explosive or flammable mixture. If less that
this amount is used, the mixture will not burn. This is known as �lean� to burn. If
more than this amount is used, the mixture is called too �rich� and will not burn.

There is a minimum proportion of vapor-to-air below which the vapor will not burn
and there is also a maximum proportion of vapor-to-air above which the vapor will
not burn. The minimum (lower) and maximum (upper) limits of the carton of vapor-to-
air in which the mixture will ignite or explode are known as the lower and upper
explosive limits.

Magnitude of Fire
The Magnitude of fire means the size of a fire, and it is governed by the surface
area of fuel exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not always determined by
the amount of fuel involved but more often by the amount of fuel exposed to the
air.

Flashpoint
The temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still
gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to �flash� across the surface.

Firepoint
The temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.
There is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between the flashpoint and
firepoint of most materials. Since the two are just a few degrees apart, the term
�flashpoint� is express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is
vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.
Ignition Temperature
Ignition temperature is the degree of heat necessary to ignite flammable vapors.
This temperature can come from an external source (match, spark, and friction): or
if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature, auto-ignition (self-ignition)
will occur.

Oxidation
In nearly all fires, oxidation takes place by using the oxygen that is present in
the atmosphere. However, in some cases, certain chemical compounds known as
oxidizing agents are involved. Though not flammable themselves, when they are
heated or when they come in contact with water, they give off which in turn,
supports the burning of flammable materials.

The more common Oxidizing Agents:

1. Nitrates
2. Chlorates
3. Peroxide

If a small quantity of potassium chlorate is added to a pile of sugar, flour, or

starch, and heat is applied, the mixture will burst into flame and burn violently.
Without the addition of the oxidizing agent, these same fuels would be extremely
slow in igniting.

6.2 Basic principles in Fire and Arson investigation