CHAPTER 1

RESEARCH AND ITS NATURE AND

CHARACTERISTICS

TOPICS

Meaning of Research
Man’s Major Problems Demand Research
Characteristics of Research
Approaches
Types of Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Strength and Weaknesses
Meaning of Variable
Types of Variable
Kinds of Variables

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Know the importance of research in our society as well as the

characteristics of a good research and researcher.
2. Understood the types of research and its components.

TOPIC 1: Nature of Research

What is research? Depending on who you ask, you will likely get very different
answers to this question. Some people will say that they routinely research different
online websites to find the best place to buy goods or services they want. Undergraduate
students research the Internet to find the information they need to complete assigned
projects or term papers. Businesses and consultants research different potential solutions
to remedy organizational problems such as a supply chain bottleneck or to identify
customer purchase patterns. However, none of the above can be considered “scientific
research” unless: (1) it contributes to a body of science, and (2) it follows the scientific
method.
Creswell states that - "Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps:
Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the
question.
Research is an inquiry process that has clearly defined parameters and as its aim
the discovery or creation of knowledge or theory building, testing, confirmation, revision,
refutation of knowledge and theory; and/ or investigation of a problem for local decision
making (McClure and Hersson, 1991).
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 Research is a scientific, experimental, or inductive manner of thinking. Starting
from particular to more complex ideas, you execute varied thinking acts that range from
lower-order to higher-order thinking strategies reflected by these research activities:
identifying the topic or problem, gathering data, making theories, formulating
hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Cognitively driven terms like
empirical, logical, cyclical, analytical, critical, methodical, and replicable are the right
descriptive words to characterize research. These powerful modifiers that your previous
research subject, Practical Research 1, explained to a certain extent, are the very same
terms to characterize any quantitative research you intend to carry out this time.
The data you work on in research do not come mainly from yourself but also from
other sources of knowledge like people, books, and artworks, among others. Hence, one
cardinal principle in research is to give acknowledgment to owners of all sources of
knowledge involved in your research work. Giving credit to people from whom you
derived your data is your way of not only thanking the authors of their contribution to the
field, but also establishing the validity and reliability of the findings of your research that
ought to serve as instrument for world progress (Muijs 2011; Ransome 2012).

TOPIC 2: Man’s Major Problems Demand Research

Human history abounds with problems. Problems are everywhere in different

variety in different perspective which affect mankind. Problems are observed along
political, social, environmental and many aspects of life. This may between individuals,
groups or in an organization. In that, mankind wants solution to these problems. These
solutions should not be only effective but also be acquired and used for improvement. To
be able to achieve that, solutions must be based in knowledge, not on mere beliefs,
guesses, or theories. To acquire this knowledge, it requires a well-planned and systematic
procedure and should be continuously evaluated on its accuracy and usefulness. In that,
RESEARCH has been devised to meet this need.

Research is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. It may in the

form of qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative researches are those studies in which the
data concerned can be described without the use of numerical data while quantitative
research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers.

People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to

improve or enhance ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or
simply to find answers to questions or solutions to problems in daily life. Research
findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules and regulations, as
well as policies, among others. Widely, quantitative research is often used because of its
emphasis on proof rather than discovery.

In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention.
Then, only the faculty in higher education has so much interest and conduct researchers,
but now even the teachers in the basic education are engrossed in researches and devote
time and effort in conducting researches to improve educational practices that may lead
to more quality learning of the students. Many teachers do action researches because
there is a serious need to identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education.
By doing so, they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding
the problems met. Innovative teaching strategies are product of research.

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 TOPIC 3: Characteristics of Research

Research is a scientific, experimental, or inductive manner of thinking. Starting

from particular to more complex ideas, you execute varied thinking acts that range from
lower-order to higher-order thinking strategies reflected by these research activities:
identifying the topic or problem, gathering data, making theories, formulating
hypotheses, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Cognitively driven terms like
empirical, logical, cyclical, analytical, critical, methodical, and replicable are the right
descriptive words to characterize research.
Since quantitative research uses numbers and figures to denote a particular thing,
this kind of research requires you to focus your full attention on the object of your study.
Doing this, you tend to exclude your own thoughts and feelings about the subject or
object. This is why quantitative research is described as objective research in contrast to
qualitative research that is subjective. Characterized by objectiveness, in which only the
real or factual, not the emotional or cognitive existence of the object matters greatly to
the artist, quantitative research is analogous to scientific or experimental thinking. In this
case, you just do not identify problems but theorize, hypothesize, analyze, infer, and
create as well. Quantitative research usually happens in hard sciences like physics,
chemistry, biology, and medicine; qualitative research, in soft sciences such as
humanities, social sciences, education, and psychology, among others.

APPROACHES
There are
approach is also referred to as an academic research approach. The
second approach is applied research or a contract research approach.
Both of these approaches have different purposes which influence the
nature of the respective research.

Basic approach
Basic research (also called pure research, fundamental research, and discovery
research) is a systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the
fundamental aspects of phenomena. Basic research is executed without thought of a
practical end goal, without specific applications or products in mind. Basic or academic
research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory.
Researchers with this background “design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop
theories”. Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are
performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.
Applied approach
Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical
application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities'
accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-,
business-, or client-driven purpose. Applied research is contrasted with pure research
(basic research) in discussion about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and
projects.

Basic (Academic) Research Applied (Contract) Research

Is sponsored by an agency committed to the Is sponsored by an agency with a vested

general advancement of knowledge. interest in the results.

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 Results are the property of society and the Results become the property of the sponsor.
research community.

Studies rely on the established reputations of Studies follow explicit terms of reference
the researchers and are totally under their developed by the sponsor to serve the
control. sponsor’s needs.

Budget allocations are generally based on Budget accountability is directly related to the
global proposals and accounting is left to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of
researchers. reference, time frames and methodologies.

The conduct of research is based on ‘good The work is contractual between sponsor and
faith’ between funder and researcher. researcher.

The research produces findings and The research includes applied

conclusions, but rarely recommendations recommendations for action.
except those related to further research needs.

Academic research tends to extend an By its nature, contract research tends to be

identifiable scholarly discipline. interdisciplinary.

Academic research is typically focused on a Contract research frequently analyzes the

single set of testable hypotheses. consequences of alternative policy options.

Decision-rules relate to theoretically-based Decision-rules relate to predetermined

tests of statistical significance. conventions and agreements between the
sponsor and the researcher.

Research reports are targeted to other Research reports are intended to be read and
specialized researchers in the same field. understood by lay persons.

TOPIC 4: Types of Research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Research is an umbrella covering several forms of inquiry

that help us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena
with as little disruption to the natural setting as possible. Qualitative
research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and analysis of social
phenomena. It draws on an inductive process in which themes and categories emerge
through analysis of data collected by such techniques as interviews, observations,
videotapes, and case studies.
Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness as
part of a particular context and the interactions there (Patton, 1985). A second
characteristic of all forms of qualitative research is that the researcher is the primary
instrument for data collection and analysis. A third characteristic of qualitative research is
that it usually involves fieldwork. The researcher must go to the people, setting, site,
institution, in order to observe behavior in its natural setting. A fourth characteristic of
qualitative research is that is uses an inductive research strategy.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

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 Quantitative research is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of
observable phenomena through the use of computational techniques. It highlights
numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be
generalized to some larger population and explain a particular observation. Simply,
quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its relationship with events.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Objective. Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target
concepts. It is not based on mere intuition and guesses. Data are gathered before
proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem.
2. Clearly Defined Research Questions. The researchers know in advance what they are
looking for. The research questions are well-defined for which objective answers are
sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered.
3. Structured Research Instruments. Standardized instruments guide data collection,
thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Data are normally
gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable
characteristics of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of children,
among others.
4. Numerical Data. Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in
order to show trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts
and tables allow you to see the evidence collected.
5. Large Sample Sizes. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population
distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how
the characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in
determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results.
6. Replication. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another
setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility
of spurious conclusions.
7. Future Outcomes. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of
computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results.
Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

STRENGTHS and WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The advantages of quantitative research include the following:
1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a
new hypothesis or to disproving it. Because of bigger number of the sample of a
population, the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides
numerical data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted.
2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to
comprehend a huge number of vital characteristics of data.
3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external
factors, and so can be seen as real and unbiased.
4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing
statistically valid random models, findings can be generalized to the population about
which information is necessary.
5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be
replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings.

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6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of
qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible
directions to follow.

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the
larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the
expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing
questionnaires.
3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain
variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the
respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research.
4. Much information is difficult to gather using structured research instruments,
specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and
inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing
in answering the instrument.
QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Having obtained much knowledge about qualitative and quantitative research, you
are now able to compare and contrast the two based on some standards or criteria
appearing in the following table (Muijs 2011; Sharp 2012).
Standards Qualitative Quantitative
Researcher’s
Subjective; sometimes Objective; least involvement
involvement with the object
personally engaged by the researcher
or subject of the study
Expression of data, Verbal language (words,
Numerals, statistics
data analysis, and findings visuals, objects)
Takes place as the research Plans all research aspects
Research plan
proceeds gradually before collecting data
Behavior toward Desires to preserve the Control or manipulation of
research aspects/ natural setting of research research conditions by the
conditions features researcher
Obtaining knowledge Multiple methods Scientific method
Evaluates objective sand
Makes social intentions
Purpose examines cause-effect
understandable
relationships
Data-analysis Thematic codal ways, Mathematically based
Technique competence-based methods
Impersonal, scientific, or
Style of expression Personal, lacks formality
systematic
More inclined to purposive
Sampling technique sampling or use of chosen Random sampling as the
samples based on some most preferred
criteria

TOPIC 5: Variables

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 THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is
necessary to define it here. In research, a variable refers to a
“characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Sex, for instance, has two
properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different
persons have different values; so, with their size, height, weight and income. The
phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors
of the research undertaking.
The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These
variables are among the fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement,
validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard (1994) defines a variable as
something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or numbers. A
variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an
organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or
organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).

TYPES OF VARIABLES (Allen et al., 2009)

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value
that can occur within the population. Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of
this type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Continuous variables can be
further categorized as:
a. Interval Variables – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers. It is a measurement where the difference between two values does
have meaning. Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s net
worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your
assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the difference between a
temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between
30 degrees and 20 degrees.
b. Ratio Variables – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of
numbers when there is absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval
variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that
variable. Examples of which are height, weight, and distance. Temperature
measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable
because 0 under these temperatures scales does not mean no temperature at
all.
c. Discrete Variables – This is also known as categorical or classificatory
variable. This is any variable that has limited number of distinct values and
which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of
children in family. Discrete variable may also be categorized into:

 Nominal Variable – It represent categories that cannot be ordered

in any particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It
has two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases.
Common examples of this variable include eye color, business
type, religion, biological sex, political affiliation, basketball fan
affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal scale with only two
categories just like sex is known as dichotomous.
 Ordinal Variable – It represent categories that can be ordered from
greatest to smallest. This variable has two or more categories

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 which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include
education level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if
you asked people if they liked listening to music while studying
and they could answer either “NOT VERY MUCH”, “MUCH”,
“VERY MUCH” then you have an ordinal variable. While you can
rank them, we cannot place a value to them. In this type, distances
between attributes do not have any meaning. For example, you
used educational attainment as a variable on survey, you might
code elementary school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2, college
undergraduate = 3, and college graduate = 4. In this measure,
higher number means greater education.

KINDS OF VARIABLES
Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of
variables:
1. Independent Variables. Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes.
They are invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables.
This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the conditions that act on
something else to bring about changes.
Example: The Relationship between the Managerial Skills and Employee
Performance of Hotels and Restaurants in San Jose,
Occidental Mindoro.
Managerial skills are the independent variable because it
influenced the outcome or the performance of the employees.
2. Dependent Variables. Those that depend on the independent variables; they are the
outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also
called outcome variable.
Example: The Relationship between the Managerial Skills and Employee
Performance of Hotels and Restaurants in San Jose,
Occidental Mindoro.
Employee Performance is the dependent variable because it is
hypothesized to be depending on the managerial skills. If
the managerial skills change, the performance might change
also.
3. Intervening or Medling Variables. Variables that “stand between” the independent
and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
4. Control Variables. A special type of independent variables that are measured in the
study because they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use
statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They
may be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true
influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
5. Confounding Variables. Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a
study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study.

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 Task/Activity

Concept Transformation. Explore the different areas or fields of

Business Management. Select one that you are most interested in, such as
Human Resource Management, Marketing, Entrepreneurship, etc. then
write a short essay on the following questions:

1. What are the prevalent problems or issues that you want to address in this
area? Discuss at least 3 problems or issues.

2. Formulate at least 3 Research titles out of the problems or issues as discussed

in item 1. Identify the independent and the dependent variables (as well as
other variables, if applicable).

3. Provide brief rationale. Discuss why you want to conduct study on the chosen
topics/titles.

Rubrics:

Knowledge 40%
Analysis 30%
Impact 30%
Total 100%

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 CHAPTER 2
THE PROBLEM
AND ITS BACKGROUND

TOPICS

Nature of Research Problem

Sources of a Research Problem
Writing the Background of the Study
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Objectives
Conceptual Framework
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations
Operational Definition of Terms

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Conceptualize your title or research topic based on existing

problems or issues related to it; and
2. You were able to conceptualize/formulate a research title
including the Statement of the Problem, Objectives, and other
parts of the Background of the Study etc.

TOPIC 1: Nature of Research Problem

Sparked by your curiosity or interest, you get to ponder on a problem needing

answers. You resort to thinking of what to solve, whom to ask, where to go, and how to
do all the things you want to happen to find the answer to the problem. Behaving this
way, you are then confronted with a research problem. A research problem is something
that nurtures in your mind a difficulty or uncertainty, enough to push you to do an
empirical investigation whereby you search for answers to a problem by collecting and
analyzing data or information through which you can find the right answer or solution.
Requiring you to adopt an empirical attitude toward your problem in a way that
you depend on your sensory experience, conduct experimentation, or perform a scientific

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TOPIC 2: Sources of A Research Problem

method in arriving at the truth about something makes your problem a researchable
problem.

What are the things around you that could trigger your mind to mull over one
problematic area in your life that you want to look into empirically? One of the following
could give rise to a quantitative research problem (Edmonds 2013; Punch 2014):
1. Agencies of the government, or any non-government institutions
2. Your own experience or genuine interest in something
3. Previous research findings which you want to validate or consider as studies
suffering from some inconsistencies or discrepancies
4. Present political social or economic issues in society
5. Review of related literature

TOPIC 3: Writing your Background of the Study

1. INTRODUCTION
In the introduction, it is important to give the reader a clear notion of the general
scope of the problem investigated. The reader should be given enough idea about similar
problems from other country (mega level), in our country (macro level) and the particular
place where the research is conducted (micro level). The writer should underscore the
difficulties caused by the problem and the importance of investigating it. Hence, this part
of the study, the introduction, is primarily designed to meet this felt need to the reader.
The presentation of the investigation should very naturally lead to the objectives of the
study.

2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem studied must be shown as one, which arose from a situation of need
or of unresolved difficulties. The reader must be made to recognize this need. The
statement of the problem has the following characteristics:
 The problem should be stated precisely, accurately, and clearly.
 It can be stated either in the declaration or interrogation form.
 It can be either one main statement/question, or a series of statements/questions,
or a combination of these forms.
 The problem should be defined in terms of the data that can be obtained.
The statement of the problem may be classified into two categories, the major and
specific. The major problem is a broad statement of the problem that uses abstract
immeasurable concepts. The specific problem is a detailed statement of purpose, which
uses attainable and measurable concepts, the formulation of which should be based on,
and logically flows from the major problem. Some studies may only have specific
problems while others may include both categories.
3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Objectives are the desired or expected ends to be achieved through the research
activity that are not influenced by the judgment or personal bias. They describe the aims
or goals, which expected to be achieved at the end of the research process. The objectives
of the study may be classified into general and specific. The general objective is a broad
statement of purpose, which uses the abstract of concepts. The specific objective is an
activity necessary to attain the general objective.

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 Good objectives of the study have an acronym of S-M-A-R-T-E-R that will be
useful in remembering as follows:

1. They should be stated in simple language;

2. They use measurable concepts;
3. They are attainable;
4. They are result-oriented;
5. They are time-bounded;
6. They generate enthusiasm;
7. They make use of the local resources.
Research Problem
Interrogative statement: What are the business practices employed by farmers and
the relative profitability of off-season farming in San Jose, Occidental Mindoro?
Declarative statement: This study wanted to determine mainly the business
practices employed by farmers and profitability of off-season farming in San Jose,
Occidental Mindoro.
Research Questions or the Statement of the Problem
Interrogative statements:
1. What is an English grammar textbook?
2. What is communicative competence?
3. What components of the grammar textbook work for communicative competence
development?
4. How many Manila private universities require the use of grammar textbooks?
5. How many Manila private universities use grammar textbooks as references only?
6. To what extent do Manila private universities find grammar textbooks effective in
helping college students attain communicative competence?
Declarative statements or the Objectives of the Study:
Likewise, this study aims at finding answers to the following specific objectives:
1. To determine the extent of business practices employed by farmers on off-
season farming, in terms of:
a. Marketing;
b. Human Resource;
c. Finance; and
d. Operations.
2. To determine the level of profitability of off-season farming in San Jose,
Occidental Mindoro, in terms of:
a. Income; and
b. Return on Investment.
3. To determine which of the business practices significantly influences the
profitability of off-season farming in San Jose.

4. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Research is an academic activity that requires a great deal of abstraction or
formation of concepts or ideas in your mind about things in your surroundings. This
activity in all its stages immerses you into performing varied higher-order thinking
strategies of interpreting, criticizing, applying, and creating. Resulting from mental
conceptions and viewed holistically, research has to appear understandable to people who
are enthusiastic to read the research findings. Owing to the cognitive-based nature of this

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scholarly academic work called research, you need a certain scheme or detailed plan or
system to explain the components of the research including the relationships of these
research features. Wanting to make clear the ins and outs of your research in a nutshell,
you resort to making a conceptual framework of your study. A conceptual framework is a
graphical presentation of your concepts or ideas on the basic structure or components of
your research as well as on the relationships of these elements with one another. It is a
graph or non-prose material, specifically, a schematic diagram that shows a well-ordered
element of the research. Giving a carefully constructed arrangement of the components of
your study, conceptual framework is abroad outline or plan to give shape to your research
(Shields & Rangarjan 2013).
Pointers in Writing a Conceptual Framework
1. Familiarize yourself with the objective of the conceptual framework.
2. Base the contents of the conceptual framework on your own understanding of the
elements and of the relationships of the research features.
3. See to it that all aspects of the conceptual framework are related to the objective
of the research.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Business Practices in Off-

Season Farming
Profitability
Marketing;
Income
Human Resource;
Return of Investment
Finance; and
Operations

5. HYPOTHESIS (Optional)
Hypothesis is a suggested answer to the problem. It may be defined as an
expectation about events based on generalizations of the assumed relationship between
variables (Aquino, 1992) or difference between groups. Other authors defined it as an
educated or intelligent guess or prediction about the existence, attribute or relationship
between variables (characteristics or phenomena) or difference between groups covered
by a study. It is described as educated or intelligent guess since it has been formulated on
the basis of well thought objectives, which require critical reviews of literature and
studies about the subject matter.
The use of the “null” hypothesis has become more common in research whether
psychological, social, or education. The reason for the use of the “null” hypothesis is that
it is easier to disprove. In using a “null” hypothesis, one assumes that no significant
‘relationship or difference exists’ after which the researcher seeks to ascertain the
improbability of such “null” hypothesis. Only a “null” hypothesis can be subjected to
statistical testing (Best, 1981 p. 7).”
Assumptions. Assumptions are statements of facts related to the research
problems that are presumed to be true on the basis of observations and experience
although not actually verified. They are stated so as to provide foundation from which the
study will proceed, and an additional basis for validation of variables of interest.
As the term suggests, assumptions do not require testing or confirmation. Not all
investigations, however, have a section on assumptions. This is so because, in some

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studies, assumptions are integrated in the introductory portion or at the background of the
problem being investigated.
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Estolas, et. al. (1995, p. 178) emphasized the importance of the study as the part
of the research which justifies the launching of the research project. It is in this section
where the researcher expresses his persuasion about the value of the study so as to get the
approval of the screening and approving committee. The importance of the study should
contain the following:
1. Contribution to the accumulation of knowledge or to filling up a knowledge gap;
2. Contribution to building, validating or refining theories;
3. Finding a solution to a problem of a specific group or improving certain
conditions;
4. Contribution to improve education, income, health, inter-relations, and the like.

6. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Scope and limitations comprise one important section of a research paper.
Scope. The scope defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the
area or locality and subjects, population covered the duration or period of the study. The
nature of variables treated, their number, and treatments they received, and instruments or
research design should be so stated.
Limitation. Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher
that may place restriction on the conclusions of the study and their application to other
situations. Administrative policies that preclude using more than one class in an
experiment, a data-gathering instrument that has not been validated, or the inability to
randomly select and assign subjects to experimental and control groups are examples of
limitations. Stating the study limitations not only provides extra credence to the study but
also provides the reader caution not to expect beyond what the study can and promises to
deliver.
7. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Many terms are subject to a variety of interpretations. The definition of terms
serves two essential functions. First, it establishes the rules and procedures the
investigator will use to measure variables. Second, it provides unambiguous meaning to
terms that otherwise can be interpreted in different ways.
There are two major types of definition of terms used in the study – the
conceptual and the operational. The conceptual definition is the dictionary, which is the
reference book of everyday language. The operational definition is the meaning of the
concept or term as used in a particular study.
The clearer definition includes conceptual and operational or working definition;
Example: Middle Class is conceptually defined as a category of persons within a
society. Operationally, it is a group of persons whose average annual income is P10,000-
P24,000, and a minimum educational attainment of high school level.

Task/Activity

14
Concept Elaboration. Based from the accepted Research title, formulate the following
parts of the paper:
1. Introduction; Rubrics:
2. Statement of the Problem;
3. Objectives of the Study; Knowledge 40%
4. Significance of the Study; Analysis 30%
5. Conceptual Framework; Impact 30%
6. Scope and Limitations; and Total 100%
7. Operational Definition of Terms.

CHAPTER 3
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES

TOPICS

Nature of Research Problem

Sources of a Research Problem
Writing the Background of the Study
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Objectives
Conceptual Framework
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations
Operational Definition of Terms

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Justify and relate their studies to the different existing studies

or Literatures; and
2. Cite properly using updated sources or references.

The review of related literature and related studies is an essential step in the
research process. Before, during and after formulating the research problem, the
researcher faces the task of reviewing the literature and studies that relates to the research
area. By familiarizing to the body of knowledge and theory on the topic, the investigator
would better able to integrate the research project into existing theory and build on the
works of predecessors. The purpose of review of literature is to define the boundaries of
knowledge. The felt need on problem stems directly from the review of literature.
Previous related and relevant studies form the foundation on which the new investigation
will be build.

15
 The early stage of a literature review can be discouraging. Locating even one
relevant source may prove a painstaking and fruitless process. But with your initial trips
to the library, the archives or private collections of documents may prove overwhelming
as sources unfold and everything seems relevant. As you go in your research you will
gradually discover some helpful leads, the location of articles and manuscripts and
author’s previous clues to additional materials make the detective work easier and even
more enjoyable.
More often, the search for primary, secondary and tertiary sources with their
corresponding authors can be authentically verified. For all researchers, however, the

TOPIC 1: Purposes of RRL

review of literature involves critical and thorough search of possible information that
relates to the research problem. The researchers must locate, read, analyze, evaluate,
organize and report all the relevant sources to provide a solid justification for his or her
research. The literature review and studies provide a purpose for one’s research question
or hypothesis and demonstrates the relationship between past work and the present
investigation.

Your reasons for reviewing related literature are true for both qualitative and
quantitative research. You re-examine written works related to your research for the
following purposes:
1. To findout the connection of your research to the current conditions or situations
of the world.
2. To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn
from them with respect to your own research study.
3. To discover the relation of your research with previous research studies.
4. To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of your research questions.
5. To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to your research.

Steps in Conducting a Systematic Review

Systematic review of related literature happens through the following sequential
steps:
1. Clarifying the research questions
2. Planning the research based on your understanding of the research questions
3. Searching for literature
4. Listing criteria for considering the values of written works
5. Evaluating the quality of previous research studies
6. Summarizing the various forms of knowledge collected
Obtaining results of the review of related literature by means of systematic review
that takes place in a step-by-step method is a scientific way of conducting a
reexamination of reading materials that have close connection with your research.
Adopting a systematic review of related literature prevents you from being bias in dealing
with the varied form of literature. The adherence of systematic review to scientific
method makes it the apt RRL method for quantitative research that likewise follows the
scientific method of looking into the truthfulness of something.

TOPIC 2: Guides to Use in The Review Of Related Literature

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 Good and Scates (1972) provide several classifications as guides in conducting
the review of literature. Libraries and other sources of information classify the guides
accordingly, namely:
1.) Comprehensive or general guides;
2.) Periodicals and serials;
3.) Books and monographs;
4.) Graduate theses/dissertations;
5.) Special educational areas and problems;
6.) Continuing or serial bibliographies and summaries in limited areas of
education;
7.) Extensive individual bibliographies and summaries in limited areas of
education; and
8.) Bibliographical, institutional and statistical directories and handbooks.

Several learned institutions, either socio–civic, political, economic, educational,

religious organizations; professional associations issue publications such as journals,
newsletters, directories, yearbooks, proceedings and other published materials that are
classified by compilers, libraries and reading centers. These are sources of data and
information needed for specific research problem.

TOPIC 3: In-text Citation and Referencing Styles

All reading materials related to your research that you intend to review or re-
examine offer you concepts, ideas, or information belonging to other people. Having
honesty, respect, or courtesy to the owners of these varied forms of knowledge as well as
gratefulness for their valuable contribution to the field, you see to it that the names of
these idea owners or authors appear in the appropriate sections of your research paper.
Other people’s ideas incorporated in the central section or main body of your
paper are to be cited or referred to the true owners of borrowed ideas. Referring to
authors within the main body of the paper is called Citation or In-text Citation; at the end
of the paper, it is called Bibliography or References. The two most commonly used
referencing styles are the MLA (Modern Language Association) and the APA (American
Psychological Association).
Examples of APA Referencing Style
 Citation or In-text Citation

Grouper culture can be source of substantial income of low earning families

(Sekhar and Ortiz, 2014).

According to Tacio (2013), The grouper fish is widely cultured in the pristine
waters of the Philippines, where it is known as lapu-lapu, one scribe notes. This
commodity is valued for its superb taste and its big potential in the export market.

Culture of grouper could therefore become another dollar earner for the country
(Baliao et al., 2000).

 List of References

Books
Eusebio, J., & Labios, R. (2001). Food security: Integrated farming

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 systems. Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines: JMC Press
Inc.

Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield,

MA: Merriam-Webster.

Online document
Avila, M. (2000). Strategies for farming systems research. Retrieved
September 10, 2015, from http://www.fao.org

TOPIC 4: Ethical Standards in Literature-Review Writing

Nowadays, with the advent of modern technology causing the emergence of

varied electronic communication devices and online sources of information, collecting
data happens easily and speedily. Through computer technology with its powerful
Internet, you become exposed to extensive amount of knowledge that is so easy to lure
you into practicing the copy-and-paste technique of obtaining ideas for your research
paper. Unmindful of prestigious ways of working academically, there is a danger that you
may fall into this dishonest way of reviewing and writing related literature.
The ethical way of literature writing tells you to acknowledge the owners of
borrowed ideas and put quotation marks around copied words from books or articles.
Intentionally or negligently disregarding the use of quotation marks around words copied
exactly is not only unethical but an indication of gross plagiarism as well. You must be
aware of the fact that with the surfacing of online sources of information, software to
detect plagiarism from online sources has likewise become so available in academic
institutions. Proper citation and referencing are your way of freeing yourself from
plagiarism and of avoiding people from casting doubts on your honesty and integrity as a
researcher (Fraenbel 2012; Ransome 2011).
Writing your Review of Related Literature and Studies
Here are the most important tips in writing the RRL:
 The discussion should be based only of the variables presented in the Objectives
of the Study and/or Conceptual Framework.
 Choose the most updated source for your review. Literature should not have been
published for more than 10 years.

Task/Activity

Concept Elaboration. Based from the accepted topic and objectives of

the study, formulate your Review of Related Literature and Studies.
References following the APA format shall also be included.

Rubrics:
Knowledge 40%
Analysis 30%
Impact 30% 18
Total 100%
 CHAPTER 4
METHODS OF STUDY AND
SOURCES OF DATA

TOPICS

Research Design;
Locale of the Study;
Respondents of the Study;
Sampling Procedure;
Research Instrument;
Data Gathering Procedure; and
Data Analysis.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Select the type of research design to be applied on their research

work;
2. Compute sample size as respondents of the study; and
3. Formulate the research instrument to be used for data gathering.

TOPIC 1: Research Design

General Methodology: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

The distinctions between qualitative and quantitative researches lie on the
description and presentation of data. Under quantitative research, the questions are how
well, how much or how accurately are the characteristics of attributes described for a
given set of data (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1994), while qualitative research relies mainly on
narrative description.

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 The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is also a difference
in purpose (Wiersma, 1995). Qualitative research is conducted to explain in detail social
occurrences and may employ methodologies and techniques that are not bonded by
models that dictate set of procedures. On the other hand, in doing a qualitative research
such as cultural behavior of a distinct ethnic group, a researcher may not necessarily be
bounded by paradigms and statistical analysis. The natural setting, the casual way of life
and day-to-day activities can be captured by naturalist paradigm. Specific example is
ethnographic research design. The research emphasizes capturing the day-to-day
activities of the respondents by living with them to freely observe and interview them. A
socio-anthropology student conducted an example of this kind of research. The study
covered the activities of an urban school principal for a period of one year. The
researcher stayed with the principal during the period to fully describe how the principal
extended instructional supervision and administration, the frequency they were extended,
the social atmosphere, the relationship between the principal and the teachers and
anecdotal records of incidences that occurred in the school. In this example, the
researcher arrived at spontaneous methodologies and questions aside from those
speculated before the actual research design. On the other hand, quantitative research is
conducted to establish relationship, or to determine causes and effects between or among
variables. Quantitative research is interested in how often an activity takes place, its
relationship to other variables, and the causes of success or failure in the activity. In
accomplishing quantitative research, attention is focused on the randomness of the
sample, precision of definition, reduction of data into scores, and too much reliance on
statistical procedures.
Quantitative Qualitative
Hypotheses are defined at the beginning Hypotheses emerge as the research
of the research activity progresses
Definitions are clearly defined prior to the Definitions are captured during the
research research activity
Data are transformed to numerical scores Narrative descriptions are preferred
The reliability and validity of research Reliability of inference is assumed to be
instruments are represented by equivalent adequate. The validity is established by
statistical coefficients multi-level respondents by cross checking
responses
Randomization of samples Purposive samples (Expert informants)
Well defined procedures Narrative literary description of
procedures
Control of extraneous variables Relies on logical analysis in controlling
extraneous variables
Statistical summary of results Narrative summary of results
Breaks down complex phenomena into Holistic description of complex
specified parts. Manipulates aspects, phenomena
situations
Source: Fraenkel Jack and Norman Wallen. (1984). How to design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill Inc.

There are four basic research designs generally taught in research books. These
are: descriptive research design, correlational, Causal-comparative, experimental design
and the quasi-experimental design (Borg & Gall, 1992; Kerlinger, F., 1986).
The Descriptive Research. In a descriptive research, variables are studied, as they
exist in their setting. No experimental variables are manipulated and the main concerns
are to describe the status, profile, incidences or occurrences of the variables. The lack of
control variables in descriptive designs makes the results unreliable for hypothesis testing
and the results to vary from one setting to another. However, thesis writers commonly
resort to descriptive design because of the ease in gathering data. Once the instruments

20
are formulated, data can be gathered by any of the following means: questionnaire,
interview, or documentary analysis. An example of a thesis using descriptive design is
shown on a study on demographic and personal characteristics i.e., age, sex, socio-
economic status of the family, marriage status of parents, manner of discipline at home,
ambition in life, expectations of the family on the child, etc.
The Causal-Comparative Research. Causal-comparative research attempts to
determine the causes or differences that already exist between or among groups or
individuals (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993). The design compares two or more groups in
terms of a difference variable that cannot be manipulated, i.e., and high performing group
versus low performing group (Performance in the difference variable). The research may
observe that the two groups differ on some variables to determine the reasons for their
difference. The difference between groups had existed because it was observable at the
time the research was conducted; however, causative variables are explored to pinpoint
which of them effect the difference. The statistical treatment employed to compare the
two groups may positively identify significant variables such as: socio-economic status,
educational attainment of parents, expectation at home, social pressure, peer influence, or
teacher’s motivation may explore. All hypotheses concerning the differences between or
among groups are so stated after the statement of the problem. These hypotheses may be
proven or disproved by the study.
Correlational Design. Correlational research explores the relationship between or
among variables. The variables are studied without any attempt to control or manipulate
them. Correlation research is also sometimes referred to as a form of descriptive research
because it describes relationship between variables (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1993). The
relationship described, however, differs from other designs because of the degree of
relatedness established between or among variables.
In correlational studies, hypotheses concerning the relationship between or among
the variables are so stated. Correlation coefficients may describe positive or negative
relationship depending upon the outcome of the study. Positive correlation describes
direct relationship; x increases as y increases or as variable one goes up; variable two
goes up or vice versa. Negative correlation, on the other hand, is inverse relationship; x
increases as y decreases, i.e. performance diminishes when one goes old.
Correlational design cannot be used to establish cause and effect. Researchers
must be aware that the relationship between variables is expressed as two-way. Thus, a
conclusion expressing the causation between the variables being related is not valid.
Suggested Statistical Treatment for Correlating variables
Levels of Measurement
No. Of variables Treatment
used for the variables
Nominal Bivariate Chi-square
Spearman Rho,
Ordinal Bivariate
Kendall Tau
Interval Bivariate Pearson’s r
Nominal Multivariate Discriminant analysis
Interval Multivariate Multiple regression analysis

The Experimental Design. Of all the research designs, experimental research is

the design that can establish cause-and-effect relationship between the dependent and
independent variable/s. By experiment, variables are manipulated and their effects upon
other variables are observed (Campbell and Stanley, 1963). The variables being
manipulated are called experimental variables. Conditions that may possibly isolate

21
cause-and-effect relationship are controlled to come up with valid research outcomes. In
educational research, specific descriptions of how the experiment is designed and
conducted are given. The design is also expressed in diagrammed symbols to show the
arrangement of the variables and the conditions employed in the experiment.
The Posttest only control group design is composed of two groups. The subjects
are randomly selected and assigned to the two groups prior to the experiment. The
experimental group is given the treatment (x) while the control group receives the
traditional treatment. After the experimental period, the two groups are compared
on the treatment variable by the results of the posttest. Replication of the
experimental group may be used to have more than two groups.
The Pretest/Posttest control group design. This design is also composed of two
groups. Prior to the start of the experiment, the subjects are selected at random
and assigned to the experimental and control groups. The Pretest is introduced in
this design. The purpose of such is to compare the two groups in terms of the
entry behavior or characteristics of the two groups. Another use of the pretest is to
help in the determination of the gain scores, the difference between the pretest and
posttest scores. The posttest scores may also be compared to differentiate the
effect of the treatment (x) from the control condition.
Internal validity is the extent at which the procedures employed in the
experimental research warrant accurate results and interpretation, moreover,
conclusive evidences.
For example, to test a new teaching material among the first-year high school
students, a researcher chose at random first year students and assigned them to
two groups; one group was assigned as experimental group and the other, the
control group. The experimental group was given the new teaching material (a
Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) software that teaches graphic arts) while the
control group was taught using the traditional lecture by the graphic arts teachers.
Both groups underwent a pre-test before the experimentation/actual teaching and
classes were held simultaneously. After the lesson, the same post-test was given
among students of the two groups. The pre-test comparison between the two
groups may provide information as to their entry behavior. It is desirable that the
two groups possess equal entry ability prior to the experimentation. Though the
random distribution of students to the two groups assures this equality of the two
groups, the pre-test results may further signify it. The post-test results are
compared to differentiate performance between the two groups and signify the
effects of the experimentation through the results of the comparison.
The procedure is controlled in terms of the subjects who compose the
experimental and the control groups. Both classes are held simultaneously.
However, to attain better internal validity, the control group must not know that
their performance is being compared with the experimental group to avoid the
John Henry Effect (when threatened, the control group may perform better than
the experimental group), or the Hawthorn Effect (the experimental group’s
performance, being knowledgeable of the experimentation, may show
extraordinary performance which may be superficial).
External validity is the generalizability of the research results to outside or bigger
population.
For example, a research conducted among rural high school students may be
generalizable only to the same category of students not to all high school students.
Validation of a research is not perfectly attainable. However, researchers must try

22
 to achieve nearly perfect condition to get the desired usefulness of the research. In
experimental research, attempts to increase the internal validity may decrease
external validity (Wiersma, 1995) and vice versa. This happens when the
researcher controls many variables, the nature and characteristics of the sample
may not be realistic to a bigger population.

Also known as the Time and Place of the Study, this part of Research
Methodology discusses the location where the study would be conducted. This includes
not only the political unit where the study and data gathering will take place but also the
specific areas or targets e.g. schools, markets, etc. The justification for choosing such
location or area of study shall be discussed in this section also. Furthermore, most papers
include a vicinity map of the locale of the study.
The duration of data gathering as time shall also be discussed in this section. It
includes specific dates such as the month and year when the data gathering will take
place. For student theses, semesters or school years are also usually specifically included.

TOPIC 3: Respondents of the Study

Identification of the Population. This specification of the population may seem

simple but it seldom is. It is important for the researcher to anticipate decisions that are
likely to come up during the actual sample selection (Albeck and Settle, 1985). Suppose a
survey is to be conducted among State Colleges and Universities on Environment
Policies. The population of the study would include the administrators and students.
Should only the Deans and Students be included? Must the students cover the high school
level? What about the canteen personnel, extension service, research and general services
units? The respondents must be qualified to respond on the basis of two criteria (Albeck
and Settle, 1985): they must possess the information; and they also need to have certain
attributes to make the responses meaningful.
Sampling Procedure. Sampling means choosing from a large population the
respondents or subjects to answer your research questions. The entire population is
involved but for your research study, you choose only a part of the whole.
Factors Affecting Sample Selection
In choosing your respondents, you do not just listen to the dictates of your own
mind but also to other factors such as the following (Babbie 2013; Edward 2013;
Tuckman & Engel 2012):
 Sample Size
How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision on their own
experience and on research studies they have already read. But the best way to guide you
in determining the right sample size is the representativeness of the sample with respect
to the population. See to it that the sample truly represents the entire population from
where the sample came.
The representativeness or accuracy of a sample size is really hard to determine.
However, using the right sampling technique such as a randomized one, your chances of
getting a sample reflecting 95% distribution of the population or of a sample representing
the whole population is highly probable. This acceptable level of probability of the
representativeness of the sample is called confidence level or 0.05 level. This theory of
probability is true only for randomly selected respondents, not for any non-probability
type of sampling.

23
  Sampling Technique
Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling and non-
probability sampling. The first one uses a random selection; the second, a purposive or
controlled selection. Probability sampling that gives all population members equal
opportunity to be chosen as people to constitute the sample is a precise way of sampling.
Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the right people
to represent the population.
Bias is the leading factor in choosing your respondents. This is one of the causes
of sampling errors. The other errors in sampling are attributed to your procedure in
sampling.

Sampling Methods
The sampling methods are of two groups which are as follows (Tuckman 2012;
Emmel 2013; De Vaus 2013; Picardie 2014):
Probability Sampling
This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of respondents on
pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population participates. All are given equal
opportunity or chance to form the sample that is capable of reflecting the characteristics
of the whole population from where such sample was drawn.
The following are the different probability sampling techniques:
a. Simple-random sampling – choosing of respondents based on pure chance.
b. Systematic sampling – picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th
member listed in the sampling frame until the completion of the desired
total number of respondents.
c. Stratified sampling – choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided
into strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the data
analysis.
d. Cluster sampling – selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in
separate individuals such as choosing 5 classes of 40 students each from a
whole population of 5,000 students.
Non-probability Sampling
The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly, but
purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to bias. Unlike the probability
sampling techniques that exclude the researcher’s judgment, the non-probability sampling
techniques succumb to the control, likes, or wishes of the researcher and to restrictions
imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure.
The following are the non-probability sampling techniques:
a. Quota sampling – choosing specific samples that you know correspond to
the population in terms of one, two, or more characteristics.
b. Voluntary sampling – selecting people who are very much willing to
participate as respondents in the research project.
c. Purposive sampling – choosing respondents whom you have judged as
people with good background knowledge or with great enthusiasm about
the research.
d. Availability sampling – picking out people who are easy to find or locate
and willing to establish contact with you.

24
 e. Snowball sampling – selecting samples from several alternative samples
like drug dependents, human traffickers, street children, and other
wayward and homeless people whose dwelling places are not easily
located for they are like nomads moving from place to place.

TOPIC 4: Data Gathering Procedure

There are three common methods of gathering data, namely: direct or interview
method, indirect or the questionnaire method and the registration or documentary
analysis. Less frequently employed methods are observation and experimentation
methods.
The methodology to be used in a research is dictated by the nature of the research
and the research design. A research may adopt one to three methods depending upon the
nature, available time and resources available for the study.
The Direct or Interview Method. The direct or interview method gives the
accurate, complete and reliable data. The face-to-face contact with the respondents
enables the interviewer to detect whether the respondent is telling the truth. Moreover,
vague questions could readily be clarified at once. However, the interview is subject to
the interviewer’s biases, in as much as the interviewee can influence intentionally or
unintentionally the answers of the respondents.
The Indirect Method or Questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of all possible
questions that answer the problems raised in the study. In a questionnaire, the
respondents answer the questions by writing or by marking the answer sheet. The
disadvantages of the interview are the advantages of the questionnaire: on the
questionnaire, a large number of respondents can be covered at a time with lesser cost
compared to the interview; however, unclear questions cannot be cleared at once, leaving
the respondents no chance to verify items in a questionnaire.
A questionnaire may use supply type items or selection items. These items require
short responses or answers. On the other hand, selection-type items may be expressed as
multiple-choice, matching type or interpretative exercise. Examples of the supply type
items take the form of self-checklists, scales, inventories, and tests.

TOPIC 5: Research Instrument

The process of collecting data by a tool that the researcher prepares is

instrumentation. It involves the preparation of the instruments to be used to gather the
data and the process by which they shall be conducted.
The process is so important that the life of the whole research depends upon it. If
the study does not have valid and reliable instrument, a study may not be able to come up
with the target information. Unreliable results lead to erroneous conclusions, thus,
wastage of time, effort and resources.
Not all researchers need an instrument. Some researches that make use of
documents, existing records on file may not need an instrument. On the contrary some
researches may need one or more instruments or in some cases multi-level respondents to
answer different sets of instruments.

25
 Research instruments need to have the following characteristics: validity and
reliability.

TOPIC 6: Data Analysis

All the statistical treatments used in the study must be so specified in this section
of Chapter III. It is also necessary for manually computed statistical treatment to specify
the formulae used for computation. For data to be computed using computer software, the
coding scheme for the data input is also included to facilitate easy understanding of text.

Task/Activity

Concept Elaboration. Based from the accepted topic and objectives of

the study, formulate your Research Methodology with the arrangement of
discussion as enumerated below:

1. Research Design;
2. Locale of the Study;
3. Respondents of the Study;
4. Sampling Procedure;
5. Research Instrument;
6. Data Gathering Procedure; and
7. Data Analysis.

Rubrics:
Knowledge 40%
Analysis 30%
Impact 30%
Total 100%

26
 REFERENCES
Roen, D., Glau, G., & Maid, B. (2010). The McGraw-Hill guide: Writing for college,
writing for life (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Solomon, E. & Shelley, J. (2006). Key concepts 1: Listening, note taking, and speaking
across the disciplines. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Verdeber, K. & Verdeber, R. (2008). Communicate! (12th ed.). California: Thomson
Wadsworth.
Prieto, N.G., Naval,V.C., & Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research for Senior High
School 2 Quantitative Research. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Metro
Manila

Note: Please use the APA format

BOOKS
Author/s. (Year). Title of publication. Place of Publication: Publisher.

PERIODICALS
Author/s. (Month, Year). Title of publication. Place of Publication:
Publisher/Implementing Agency.

THESES/DISSERTATIONS
Author/s. (Year). “Title of Thesis/Dissertation”. M.S. Thesis/Ph.D. Dissertation,
University.

ARTICLE
Author/s. (Year). Title of article/paper. In: Title of Proceedings, Place of Publication:
Publisher.

INTERNET SOURCES

27
Author/s. (Year). Title of article/paper. Retrieved (date), from url

(The reference page is the last part of the whole module, not in the end of each lesson)

Style Guide:
 Short bond
 Margin: Left=1.5 inches; Right=1 inch
 Calibri size 12
 Single-spaced
 Justified

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