Technical Note

Landslides Guadalupe Bru · Pablo Ezquerro · Jose M. Azañón · Rosa M. Mateos ·

DOI 10.1007/s10346-024-02292-y
Received: 22 May 2023 Meaza Tsige · Marta Béjar‑Pizarro · Carolina Guardiola‑Albert
Accepted: 20 May 2024The
Author(s) 2024 Deceleration captured by InSAR after local
stabilization works in a slow‑moving landslide:
the case of Arcos de la Frontera (SW Spain)

Abstract Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is a infrastructure; moreover, they may serve as precursors to faster
remote sensing tool used for monitoring urban areas affected by and catastrophic mass movements.
geological hazards. Here we analysed the effectiveness of stabiliza- Satellite synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) is
tion works on a slow-moving landslide in Arcos de La Frontera an Earth observation (EO) technique that measures the temporal
(Cádiz, Spain) using a persistent scatterer interferometric approach. evolution of ground surface deformation along the radar line-
The works consisted on jet grouting of cement-based injections and of-sight (LOS) direction, being particularly suitable to identify
were applied locally to stabilize the most damaged neighbourhood. and/or monitor ground deformation associated with slow-
We processed a large stack of Sentinel-1 SAR satellite acquisitions moving landslides (Colesanti and Wasowski 2006; Herrera et al.
covering the period January, 2016, to March, 2023, and obtained 2013; Hilley et al. 2004; Solari et al. 2020; Wasowski and Bovenga
surface velocity and displacement trends measured along the line 2014). For the particular case of landslides, the geometry of the
of sight (LOS) of the satellite on both ascending and descending slopes is a determinant factor to take into consideration, as the
orbits. The results show a clear deceleration of the landslide head radar visibility for ascending or descending SAR images might be
after mid-2018, suggesting the local stabilization works were effec- hampered. There are several InSAR methods depending on the
tive after that time. Prior to mid-2018, the maximum LOS veloc- criteria to select the punctual measuring targets (persistent or
ity of the landslide head was 2.2 cm/year in ascending orbit and distributed scatters) and on the interferogram network formation
1.3 cm/year in the descending orbit, decreasing to 0.43 cm/year and (single of multi-reference) (Minh et al. 2020; Osmanoğlu et al.
0.23 cm/year, respectively. The InSAR results were compared to in- 2016). Among them, the Stanford method of persistent scatterer
situ monitoring data and revealed that the extent of the stabiliza- (StaMPS) is suited for measuring surface deformat0ion in urban
tion has influenced a much larger area beyond the zone of the local and non-urban environments when the man-made and natural
interventions. Overall, InSAR has proved a powerful and versatile targets remain coherent over time, even with low-amplitude phase
tool to be implemented in operational geotechnical monitoring. stability (Hooper et al. 2004). Sentinel-1 (S1) SAR is a two-satellite
constellation operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) at
Keywords InSAR · Geotechnical monitoring · Urban landslide · C-band, providing a medium spatial resolution of 20 × 5 m. It was
Stabilization works launched in 2014 and initially provided freely accessible global data
with a revisit time of 6 days until December, 2021. Subsequently,
the revisit time extended to 12 days due to the complete failure
Introduction of satellite S1B. This data provides an exceptional opportunity to
Landslides are a globally widespread natural hazard that occurs monitor long-term motion of slow-moving landslides and analyse
under various environments and conditions, with the potential to areal extent or speed changes of different periods (Cigna and Tapete
lead to fatalities and economic losses. They can develop not only in 2021; Cook et al. 2023; Kalia 2023). In the current scenario of Big
mountainous regions but also in moderate relief areas with unfa- Data SAR archives, the European Ground Motion Service (EGMS)
vourable geotechnical conditions (weak rock and soil). A landslide, from the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service (CLMS) provides
broadly defined, describes the movement of a mass of geological free access to high-resolution monitoring of ground deformations
material, which can originate from diverse sources and possess over most of Europe, based on full-resolution processing of all S1
various geomechanical properties, sliding down a slope (Hungr satellite images available (Costantini et al. 2022). EGMS employs
et al. 2014). This includes a large variety of phenomena, with their advanced persistent scatterer (PS) and distributed scatterer (DS)
own peculiar features and mechanical behaviour. Within the wide InSAR processing techniques. At the time of writing, the EGMS
spectrum of landslide types, slow moving slides are characterized products cover the period February, 2015, to December, 2022, and
by motion rates that span several centimetres per year and can updates are planned annually thereafter (CLMS 2023).
persist for years to decades. Numerous natural, human-induced, Landslide monitoring means the comparison of landslide
or a combination of triggering factors can initiate or accelerate the conditions (like areal extent, speed of movement, topography, or
motion, such as high rainfall, removal of the supporting forces of soil humidity) from different periods in order to assess landslide
the toe by river erosion, topographic reshaping of the slope, or activity (Mantovani et al. 1996) and to interpret its mechanical
increased loading by buildings. While slow-moving landslides rarely behaviour. Designing optimal engineering solutions to mini-
claim lives, they can cause significant damage to housing and mize the intensity of landslide hazard phenomena or reduce the

Landslides
 Technical Note
vulnerability of exposed urban elements at risk should follow a the periods April, 2011, to February, 2012, and February, 2015, to
thorough understanding of the process and the characterization July, 2016.
and quantification of geo-mechanical properties. The scope of In the present study, we comprehensively review the technical
geotechnical instrumentation during the construction or opera- documentation related to urban damages caused by slope instabil-
tion phase of a stabilization or remedial project is to monitor field ity in Arcos de la Frontera New Town area since 1970, including the
performance and to evaluate and update the design judgements field investigations and the local stabilization works commissioned
if necessary (Dunnicliff 1993). The implementation of InSAR by the local authorities. We carried out on-site field assessments
techniques in the operational geotechnical monitoring of land- to document urban damages and geomorphological features. We
slides provides valuable and complementary information to conducted an analysis of landslide activity in the Arcos de la Fron-
in situ instrumentation data (Bru et al. 2018; Ciampalini et al. tera New Town area spanning a 7-year period, from January, 2016,
2021; Cigna et al. 2017; Guilhot et al. 2021) and allows the identi- to March, 2023. The InSAR analysis is based on Sentinel-1 SAR data
fication of urban landslides based on LOS velocity distribution acquired in both ascending and descending orbits. The displace-
(e.g. Guerriero et al. 2019). InSAR has the advantage of being ment time series (TS) reveal a change in the trend after mid-2018,
cost-effective, as there is no need to involve staff in field cam- suggesting a deceleration in sliding. We further analyse the changes
paigns, direct data collection, and maintenance of continuous in landslide activity and establish correlations with the local stabi-
recording systems, plus there are numerous open-source InSAR lization works undertaken in the La Verbena area. Additionally, we
processing packages (Hooper 2008; Sandwell et al. 2011; Yunjun compare our InSAR results with those provided by the European
et al. 2019) and the option to access free satellite data. Moreo- Ground Motion Service (EGMS).
ver, it offers spatially extensive information compared to in situ
methods and provides long observation periods with fixed-time Study area
acquisitions, unlike other remote techniques. The effectiveness
of engineering stabilization works on unstable slopes has been Geology and geomorphology
assessed a posteriori using InSAR displacement rates from dif- Arcos de la Frontera (Andalusia, Spain) is located in a small post-
ferent satellites (Czikhardt et al. 2017; Del Soldato et al. 2018; Di orogenic intramountain basin that is part of the geological domain
Maio et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2020) and during and after the interven- of the Guadalquivir Basin (Sanz de Galdeano and Vera 1992). The
tions (Confuorto et al. 2019). site’s geomorphology is characterized by the erosion of different
Arcos de la Frontera is a National historic-artistic monumen- Miocene materials by the Guadalete River, which flows at the base
tal town located in the province of Cádiz (Andalusia, Spain) that of the town (Fig. 1). The old town is perched on a nearly vertical
went through a vast urban expansion in the first decade of this 100-m cliff, where calcarenites are exposed. In the gentler slopes to
century. New housing blocks were constructed on a gentle slope the west, where a portion of the new town is settled, high-plasticity
area underlined by weathered clayey soil of the Guadalquivir Blue silty clays from the GBM formation are prevalent (VORSEVI 2009).
Marls (GBM) formation, which is extensively present in the region Moving towards the lower part of the slope, the GBM exhibits a
and typically undergoes serious geotechnical problems. GBM higher clay content, contributing to a smoother landscape with
are high-plasticity clays that behave as a stiff soil with very low slopes measuring less than 15°. Alluvial plain materials are depos-
strength parameters when they are weathered (Escolano Sánchez ited in the inner bank of the Guadalete River. Soil samples collected
et al. 2019; Tsige and Corral 2013). Numerous geotechnical failures at the head of the landslide and at the Tablellina water channel dur-
such as landslide subsidence, collapse, soil creep, and expansiveness ing various field investigations, as documented in technical reports
in the Guadalquivir basin are related to this formation (Alonso and (García 1970; VORSEVI 2009, 2010), reveal a distinct stratification
Gens 2006; Oteo 2000; Tsige et al. 1995; Uriel and Fornes 1994; Uriel in the GBM. The upper layer consists of weathered high-plasticity
and Oteo 1976). Arcos de la Frontera landslide activity has caused GBM, identified as brown silty clays with variable thickness, tran-
damages of various degrees to infrastructures, urban assets, and sitioning to an increased clay content. Immediately below, at depths
buildings in the New Town area since the 1970s. The most affected of around 15–20 m, unweathered high-plasticity GBM are found,
site is La Verbena neighbourhood, comprised of five buildings that characterized by a green-grey colour. Dynamic probing super heavy
exhibited slope motion shortly after their construction in 2007. In (DPSH) and standard penetration tests (SPT) conducted in these
October, 2009, 22 families were evacuated due to severe structural investigations classified the consistency of weathered GBM as soft
damage of one of the buildings, which was definitely declared der- to medium in the shallower part and stiff to hard below. Meanwhile,
elict in March, 2010, after an intense precipitation period. Remedia- the unweathered GBM were classified as hard.
tion measures to locally stabilize the slope motion in La Verbena The investigated landslide develops on the western slope
were implemented intermittently between 2011 and 2021 with a cost where the GBM formation is present (Fig. 1). According to the
of 4.1 million €. Previous research studies on this landslide have classification by Hungr et al. (2014), it falls into the category of a
focused on the geological and mechanical characterization of the planar slide earthflow. The displaced material initially undergoes
process, based on InSAR measurements along with a detailed geo- planar slide movements before transitioning into a flowing state.
logical interpretation and urban damage distribution (Bru et al. The lower sections of the slope are the first to fail, primarily influ-
2017). In another study, a methodology was developed to map vul- enced by river erosion. Consequently, new slides form through a
nerable buildings in urban areas affected by active landslides using series of progressive retrogressive failures upslope (Béjar-Pizarro
this site as a test scenario (Béjar-Pizarro et al. 2017). The landslide et al. 2017). The location of the main scarp is determined by the
motion rates measured in these works using InSAR techniques contact between the calcarenites and the GBM formation. The
reached up to 3 cm/year in the satellite line of sight (LOS) during cross section of the slope in Fig. 1b illustrates the planar surface

Landslides
Fig. 1  a Location and geological map of the studied area. Buildings belonging to the Arcos de la Frontera Old Town are depicted in a differ-
ent colour than those constructed after 1960 (New Town). La Verbena neighbourhood is situated at the head of the landslide, and the Gua-
dalete River flows at the foot of the landslide. b Geological cross section illustrating the complex landslide. Please note that the cross section
is in proximity to inclinometer S-1 but does not directly intersect with it

and shallower slips, as interpreted from field characterization 2009). These cracks indicate the alignment of movement along this
along with inclinometric data (which will be further described direction. Additionally, cracks observed in buildings parallel to the
in the “Geotechnical investigations and local stabilization works” main scarp line suggest a N-S component of movement in the mid-
section). The head of the landslide covers a relatively flat area dle and eastern header area.
­ m2 and is entirely urbanized by the New Town (Figs. 1
of 0.17 k
and 2). In the medium and lower parts of the slope, soil piping
and creeping phenomena are observable, along with mudflows Urban development and damages
exhibiting lobular morphologies (Fig. 3).
The principal direction of motion of the landslide in La Verbena Arcos de la Frontera has a population of more than 30,000
area is identified as 330° NE, following the local maximum slope inhabitants. Approximately the 80% of its buildings were
path, as observed in numerous pavement cracks (inset Fig. 2) and constructed after the 1960s, being the most productive construction
supported by geotechnical instrumentation data (Cobo 2021; MCH period the 1995–2009 (Figs. 2 and S1 in the Supplementary Material)

Landslides
 Technical Note
Table 1  Timeline sequence of reported damages associated with landslide motion, building construction, and local stabilization works
Year Events
1970 A technical geological report by García (1970) identifies severe damages in the Tablellina water channel and around
the old railway station caused by shallow slip processes occurring in the weathered GBM formation.
1995 The land use designation of the area where La Verbena is now settled was changed to urban land (PGOU 1995).
2000 The geotechnical investigations carried out before the construction of La Verbena buildings (TEDECO 2000) did not
consider landslide hazard.
2001–2004 Construction of La Verbena buildings.
2007 First damages reported in building R-6: cracks inside the flats and opening of the dilatation joint (Dictum 2014).
2009 Preliminary survey reports and analysis of pathologies of La Verbena buildings exposing the building degradation
(EDARTEC 2009; EXPERTA 2009).
An expert report at the end of the year recommended declaring building R-6 derelict (MCH 2009), leading to the
evacuation of 22 families. Subsequently, geotechnical works were initiated (VORSEVI 2009) to investigate possible
stabilization measures.
2010 Between December, 2009, to February, 2010, more than 800 mm of accumulated rainfall aggravated the damages in
building R-6, which was finally declared derelict by the Local Government Board. The geotechnical works continued
(VORSEVI 2010).
2011–2014 Phases I–II (BOE 2011a, b) of local stabilization works in La Verbena, involving water drainage and jet grouting, with a
total cost of €2.6 million.
2014 The families evacuated from building R-6 lose their trial against the construction company. The court determined that
the damages were a result of the landslide and not due to building defects (Dictum 2014). The company argued
that the slope failure was unpredictable and cited the Urban Development Plan of the city (PGOU 1995), which did
not mandate a landslide hazard analysis due to the characteristics of the La Verbena site—specifically, the slope
inclination being less than 15%, and the affected area or volume being less than 2500 ­m2 and 5000 ­m3, respectively.
2018–2021 Phase III of local stabilization works in La Verbena, involving jet grouting with a total cost exceeding €1.5 million
(Moncloa 2017).
2023 Planned works for phase IV involve the renovation and restoration of urban elements, with an estimated cost of €1.5
million.

coinciding with the Spanish housing bubble. The historical old Supplementary Material), decreasing the degree of damage from
town flourished between the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries and R-5 to R-2 (EDARTEC 2009; EXPERTA 2009). By October, 2009,
settles on the top of a calcarenite ridge; meanwhile, the newer areas severe structural damage of building R-6 led to the evacuation of 22
are located over gentler slopes at its sides. The geological materials families. The reinforced concrete slab forming the foundation of the
underlying the western New Town area are the GBM. Evidence of building had failed in the area near the expansion joint. This caused
mass movements in this area was documented as early as the 1970s the settlement and tilting of the southern part of the building with
(García 1970), with severe impacts on linear infrastructures such respect to the other (Fig. 4), as well as the appearance of horizontal
as the artificial water channel known as the Tablellina and the old cracks in the pillars near the expansion joint and damage to the
railway station (Figs. 3 and S2 in the Supplementary Material). The structural elements of the floor slabs. The opened joint resulted
latter was dismantled at the beginning of the 1980s. In 1995 a new in a preferential entry of rainwater. Between December, 2009,
Urban Development Plan was approved by the municipality (Table 1) to February, 2010, more than 800 mm of accumulated rainfall
and new, large areas around the town were declared as urban aggravated the damages and building R-6 was declared derelict by
(PGOU 1995), including the head of the landslide. La Verbena the Local Government Board. The opening of this joint in the NS
neighbourhood is composed of five buildings constructed between direction measured in the western facade was 10 cm in 2009 (MCH
2001 and 2004, starting from those located further West at the top 2009). In December, 2022, we measured in the same place 60 cm
of the slope (inset Fig. 2). Each building is divided by two or three of opening in the NS direction, 32 cm in the WE direction, and a
expanding joints and the type of foundation is reinforced concrete difference of 40 cm between buildings height vertically (Fig. 4).
continuous slab. First damages appeared in building R-6 (inset
Fig. 2) in 2007 in the form of cracks in partition walls, pillars and Geotechnical investigations and local stabilization works
pavement, the opening of the dilatation joint, and the breakage of
sewer and water systems (Dictum 2014). The rest of the buildings Geotechnical investigations in the La Verbena area have been
were gradually affected by the same structural issues (Fig. S3 in the ongoing since 2009, encompassing a comprehensive characterization

Landslides
Fig. 2  Stages of building construction in the New Town of Arcos de La Frontera (see Fig. S1 in the Supplementary Material). It highlights both,
the landslide and urban features. Circled letters indicate sites corresponding to the photos shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The upper right inset show-
cases the La Verbena neighbourhood, constructed between 2001 and 2004, with discernible damages indicated by surface cracks and open-
ings of building dilation joints. The five buildings comprising La Verbena are labelled R2 to R6

of materials through in-situ and laboratory testing. This data is landslide hazard. Subsequently, after the complex landslide
documented in various technical reports commissioned by the local started causing damage to the buildings in 2007, more detailed
authorities (Table 1). It is important to highlight that these reports, investigations were conducted. In July, 2009, crack gauges were
along with the plans for implementing the stabilization works, did installed inside building R-6 in response to emerging damages.
not approach the complex landslide as a holistic problem. Instead, Monthly readings were conducted until November, 2009, revealing
the focus was specifically directed towards addressing the most a progressive opening of cracks with a maximum displacement
damaged area, which is La Verbena. On the contrary, research of 5 mm over the 4-month period. This observation exposed
conducted using InSAR, geological and geomorphological mapping, the gradual degradation of the structure (EXPERTA 2009).
and urban damage inventory (Béjar-Pizarro et al. 2017; Bru et al. To investigate landslide activity, two inclinometers and three
2017) revealed that the extension of the active area goes beyond La piezometers were installed in La Verbena (VORSEVI 2010). Only
Verbena, and they delineated the boundaries of the complex landslide. two manual inclinometric readings were conducted between
The field investigations described in the technical reports involved September, 2008, and February, 2009. Inclinometer SS-1, with
the installation of manual recording piezometers, inclinometers, a length of 25 m, detected a basal slip surface at a depth of
and crack gauges, as well as tachymeter surveys to monitor building 24 m, exhibiting approximately 30 mm of cumulative landslide
movements and cross-hole seismic surveys to analyse changes in soil displacement towards the maximum slope direction. In contrast,
strength parameters after the stabilization works (which aimed to in inclinometer SS-2, the basal slip surface was distinctly
enhance the geotechnical properties of the soils). All of these aspects identified at a depth of 6 m, displaying cumulative displacements
will be further explained in this section. of less than 30 mm towards the maximum slope direction. Other
The initial geotechnical report, conducted before the inclinometers installed below the landslide head in 2003 identified
construction of La Verbena, analysed soil performance to a a shallow slip surface at 4.5 m (S-1) and 7 m (S-2) (VORSEVI 2003).
depth of 10 m (TEDECO 2000). Despite evidence of previous Phreatic level measurements on 11/09/08 indicated a level at 9 m
damages near this site (Fig. 3) to the old railway and Tablellina depth in SS-1, while SS-2 was dry. The only available data from
channel (García 1970), the report failed to identify potential the piezometers, measured on 03/09/2010, showed phreatic levels

Landslides
 Technical Note

Fig. 3  Photographs of landslide impacts and features. a, b Soil piping at the old railway (site A in Fig. 2) in 1970 and 2022, respectively. c, d
The Tablellina water channel in 2017 (site B in Fig. 2) in 2017 and 2022, respectively. e Creep processes and mudflows forming lobular mor-
phologies (site C in Fig. 2)

at 2.5 m depth in SP-1, 4.5 m depth in SP-2, and 3.2 m depth in performed between 2017 and 2021 to analyse the soil properties
SP-3. These measurements were taken 2 years apart. Between before and after the last phase of stabilization works (Cobo 2021).
December, 2009, and February, 2010, the region experienced a The primary purpose of the stabilization measures was to
substantial accumulation of over 800 mm of rainfall, which could enhance the geotechnical properties of the soil beneath La Verbena
potentially explain the observed rise in the water table, reaching neighbourhood, located at the head of the landslide, to mitigate slope
almost 5 m (Bru et al. 2017). High-precision tachymeter surveys movements at this specific location. The works involved draining
were performed over La Verbena buildings between February, the western part of the slope head and implementing jet grouting
2013, and June, 2021, to monitor their movement during the via boreholes to improve both bearing capacity and relative density
stabilization works. Cross-hole seismic pair surveys were also of the ground. Phases I and II of jet grouting works were carried out

Landslides
Fig. 4  Photos of building R-6 (site D in Fig. 2) showing the gradual opening of the dilatation joint through the years a 2009 (Google StreetView), b
2015, and c 2022. d Graphical representation of the displacement of the R-6 building from the time of its construction to the present day (2023)

in La Verbena neighbourhood soils between 2011 and 2014, start- TA-3. However, adverse movements were detected in buildings within
ing in the areas labelled as TA-1 and TA-2 in Fig. 5a. Small diam- TA-1 and TA-2, leading to the spatial densification of injections along
eter holes (76 mm) were drilled with inclinations ranging between the same axes as the previous ones. The latest survey in June, 2021,
0° (vertical) and 45°, reaching depths up to 40 m and a drill spac- revealed a reversal of movement in the zone corresponding to TA-2,
ing between 1 and 3.5 m (Fig. 5a and b). The jet grouting scheme is showing upward movements with respect to the slope of the hillside.
shown in Fig. 5c. A low-mobility cement mortar with high internal No movement was detected in TA-1 and TA-3 at that time.
friction (Abrams cone between 3 and 8 cm) was pumped with a flow The cross-hole seismic surveys in the TA-2 zone, conducted in
ranging between 10 and 90 L/min at high-pressure (between 5 and 2017 and September, 2021, aimed to analyse changes in strength
30 bars). The pumped mortar induced lateral displacement of the soil parameters before and after the jet grouting works of phase
soil in the vicinity of the application points, resulting in densifica- III. The results revealed a notable increase in the bulk modulus (K)
tion, hardness, and increased strength of the soil surrounding the by 33 to 115% and an increase in the shear modulus (G) between
treated area. Additionally, the reorganization of soil particles sig- 60 and 250% at depths of 10 to 20 m. This enhancement in both K
nificantly reduced the percentage of voids. The vertical stress in the and G signifies improved stiffness (resistance to compression) and
treated soil layer ensured that the low-mobility mortar displaced strength (resistance to shear forces) in the treated soils.
the soil horizontally without causing uplift at the surface. Tachym- The significance of these parameter increases lies in
eter surveys in 2014 showed that the movement of the buildings in reinforcing the stability of the slope. They directly contribute
the areas TA-1 and TA-2 had not only stopped but was also partially to the soil’s resistance against sliding and shear forces, thereby
reversed. However, the following survey in October, 2017, detected enhancing load-bearing capacity. Additionally, the filling of
movements downslope in buildings R-2, R-3, and R-4, highlighting microfissures within the GBM formation reduces permeability,
the urge of a third phase. Phase III started in February, 2018, and the minimizing water infiltration and preventing further degradation
first operation was the controlled drainage of La Verbena area with of the structural integrity of the slope. The jet grouting process
the objective of increasing shear strength and achieve primary soil induced the horizontal propagation and impregnation of the
consolidation. Hereafter the jet grouting works were performed in cement mortar, extending several tens of metres (more than
the zone TA-3. The mortar injections also facilitated soil water drain- 100 m in some cases) from the injection points at La Verbena.
age, but disabled the draining pipes. Tachymeter surveys conducted This suggests an improvement in geotechnical soil properties in
in August, 2019, and February, 2020, indicated stabilization in area a much wider area. However, it is important to note that the

Landslides
 Technical Note

Fig. 5  a Map showing the location of the grouting boreholes in La Verbena neighbourhood. b Design of the inclined grouting boreholes that
intersect the local shear surface (dashed line). c Jet grouting scheme

effectiveness of these improvements beyond the head, particularly stated. At the time of writing, the fourth phase had not yet started.
in the middle part and foot of the slope, remains uncertain due to It will consist on the underpinning of the foundations of the
data limitations. Therefore, while positive effects on the stability buildings, improvement and reinforcement of soils, drainage,
of the landslide head are observed, the overall improvement in surface protection, and repair of wet networks, with an estimated
stability across all regions of the slope cannot be conclusively cost of 1.5 million €.

Landslides
InSAR monitoring errors. For the phase unwrapping we used the 3-D method (Hooper
2010), which is performed both spatially and temporally. We opted
Data and processing for a short unwrapping time window of 10 or 30 days to prevent
We used SAR images acquired by the Sentinel-1 satellite in the Inter- irregular trends in the time series caused by reaching extreme values
ferometric Wide (IW) swath mode to measure ground movements
of −𝜋∕ + 𝜋 . Additionally, we chose a small unwrapping grid size of
over the studied area. Two stacks of 172 ascending (track 147) and
50 m to prevent undersampling of the signal, considering the local-
179 descending orbit (track 154) acquisitions were processed sepa-
ized nature of the phenomenon under study and its reduced spatial
rately, covering the periods January, 2016–March, 2022, and May,
size. Finally, spatially correlated DEM and orbit errors were estimated
2016–March, 2022, respectively (Table 2). We limited our analysis to
and subtracted. A comprehensive description of the StaMPS process-
Sentinel-1A (S1A) data having a 12-day repeat cycle. Furthermore,
we conducted a more recent InSAR analysis spanning from June, ing chain steps and its parameterization is provided in the StaMPS/
2022 (coinciding with the completion of the stabilization works), MTI Manual (Hooper et al. 2010). With this analysis we have retrieved
to March, 2023, in both orbits. The list of SAR images is available the average line-of-sight (LOS) ground deformation rate maps and
in Tables TS1, TS2, TS3, and TS4 in the Supplementary Material. displacement time series of the four SAR stacks.
For the data processing we have employed the open source python
scripts snap2stamps and the persistent scatterer (PS) method of the
Post‑processing
StaMPS software package (Hooper et al. 2007, 2004). The snap2s-
tamps scripts operate within the open-source ESA SNAP software,
We have applied a moving average window of three acquisitions
facilitating the automated generation of single reference interfero-
to smooth the displacement time series. In addition, we calculated
grams from Sentinel-1 data and exporting them to the StaMPS format
the 2-D deformation field (eastward and vertical motion) from the
(Foumelis et al. 2018; Delgado Blasco et al. 2019). The single reference
PS results combining the two different viewing geometries of the
approach involves using one reference SAR image from which all the
ascending and descending satellite orbit passes, and assuming that
interferometric pairs are generated. The reference images presented the north-south component is negligible. Firstly, we rasterized the
in Table 2 were selected to minimize the dispersion of the perpen- PS measuring points of both orbits into a common grid with a pixel
dicular baseline in each SAR stack as much as possible. To correct the size of around 60 × 60 m. Then, we calculated for each pixel the
topographic contribution to the radar phase in the interferograms, vertical and east-west velocity with the raster calculator tool of the
we used a digital terrain model of the project PNOA-LIDAR (from open-source software Q-GIS, using Eqs. (1) and (2) (Béjar-Pizarro
the National Center of Geographic Information; CNIG) with a resolu- et al. 2017),
tion cell of 5 m. The StaMPS software package extracts ground defor- ( )
vLOSd vLOS
mation data throughout the entire SAR observation period. We have Hd
− H a
a
processed a small area of 300 k ­ m2 in both geometries. StaMPS car- Veast−west = Ed Ea
(1)
−
ries out the initial selection of PS candidates based on the amplitude H H d a

dispersion (DA), which is defined as the ratio between the stand-

ard deviation and mean deviation of the amplitude over time. We
( )
vLOSd vLOSa
Ed
− Ea
chose a DA threshold value of 0.4 to minimize random amplitude Vvertical = (2)
Hd Ha
variability and exclude pixels exhibiting high temporal decorrela- Ed
− Ea
tion. The final PS selection is based on a combination of amplitude
and estimated phase stability, rejecting those that appear to be per- where
sistent only in certain interferograms. After the PS are selected, the
PS weeding process drops those that are due to signal contribution • Hd , H a = vertical directional cosine of descending and ascending
from neighbouring ground resolution elements and those deemed LOS local unit vector;
too noisy. For the noise-based weeding, we have selected standard • Ed , E a = east–west directional cosine of descending and ascend-
deviation values ranging from 0.8 to 1.2 that balances selecting the ing LOS local unit vector;
maximum amount of points with reducing the noise levels. Then,
• vLOSd , vLOSa = mean velocity in the line of sight (LOS) of the
descending and ascending satellite orbit modes.
the wrapped phase is corrected for spatially uncorrelated DEM

Table 2  Characteristics of the two datasets processed

Satellite Dataset Orbit N. of images Track First image Last image Years Ref. image

S1A 1 ASC 172 147 13/05/2016 31/03/2022 5.9 16/04/2019

DES 179 154 15/01/2016 20/03/2022 6.2 26/10/2019
2 ASC 51 147 02/06/2021 02/03/2023 1.7 06/01/2022
DES 51 154 05/06/2021 19/02/2023 1.7 12/02/2022

Landslides
 Technical Note
This approach assumes that, since SAR near-polar orbits cannot trends as it is shown in the displacement time series (Fig. 9). The
effectively detect movements in the north–south direction, there maximum values of single PS for the period prior to the decelera-
is an absence of ground motion in that particular direction. Since tion are greater, reaching – 3.8 cm/year in the ascending orbit and
the headings of the ascending and descending tracks are not com- 2.7 cm/year in the descending. The magnitude and spatial distribu-
pletely parallel, neglecting the north–south component can result tion of the deformation are similar in both geometries, increasing
in biased estimates for the east–west and vertical component, towards the west of the landslide’s head.
making this approach dependent on the actual magnitude of the Figure 7 shows the mean velocity maps for the vertical and
north–south displacements (Brouwer and Hanssen 2021). horizontal (E-W) components, projected from the S-1 ascending
and descending datasets. The vertical projection of the deforma-
Results tion (Fig. 7a) shows subsidence below the main scarp at the east-
ern part of the head of the landslide with a maximum magnitude
Deformation rate of dataset 1 (January, 2016–March, 2022) of − 0.93 cm/year for the whole 2016–2022 period. The horizontal
Figure 6 shows the InSAR-derived maps of deformation rates for projection shows that the head of the landslide moves towards the
the 6 years studied period from ascending and descending orbits east with rates reaching 2.5 cm/year. These results emphasize that
in the New Town area. The measurements indicate ground displace- the horizontal component is dominant.
ment along the satellite line of sight (LOS), which has an average
value of 45° and 38° from vertical direction for ascending and Deformation rate of dataset 2 (June, 2021–March, 2023)
descending geometries, respectively. Negative and positive values
indicate movements away and towards the satellite respectively. Figure 8 shows the InSAR-derived maps of deformation rates
Generally, the stability threshold, i.e. the value used to distinguish for the June, 2021–March, 2023, time span, from ascending and
between areas that are moving and those that are not, is set within descending orbits in the New Town area located at the landslide
a range of 1.5 to 2.0 times the standard deviation of the mean dis- head. We have used the same LOS velocity colour scale as in Fig. 6
placement velocity or accumulated displacement in InSAR data for the sake of comparison. The results show a drastic reduction
from expected stable areas. Therefore, the stability range serves of the deformation in comparison to the other processed dataset.
as a measure of processing accuracy and also represents the noise Maximum displacement LOS rates are − 1.2 cm/year (away) and
range, defined as the values within which the InSAR technique 0.8 cm/year (towards). The PS density is higher around buildings
cannot detect ground displacements. We have established a con- R-5 and R-6. In the ascending orbit, it can be seen how the defor-
servative stability threshold in − 0.4 and 0.4 cm/year based on the mation is greater in the southern part area of building R-6 than in
standard deviation of the data (σs ~ 0.18 cm/year) to assure the the northern one.
significance of the studied displacements. In both geometries the
PS are confined to urban areas, and deformation is observed within Deformation time series
the boundaries of the landslide head, where the New Town was built
(Figs. 6 and S4 in the Supplementary Material). Maximum displace- In Fig. 9 we have plotted the average LOS displacement time
ment LOS rates are − 2 cm/year (away) and 1.5 cm/year (towards the series of all the PS contained within the head of the landslide
satellite). However, these values correspond to the average of the for both geometries. This choice was made because, despite the
whole processed 6-year period, which contains two differentiated heterogeneous magnitudes of movement, the temporal behaviour

Fig. 6  Mean velocity in LOS for the period 2016–2022 (dataset 1) obtained from a ascending orbit and b descending orbit

Landslides
Fig. 7  Mean velocity maps for the a vertical and b horizontal components for the period 2016–2022 (dataset 1), projected from the S-1
ascending and descending orbits

is consistent across all PS in the landslide head (see Fig. S5 in the orbit and May, 2018, for the descending orbit. Before the break
Supplementary Material). Datasets 1 and 2 are presented together, point, the mean LOS velocity of the landslide head, computed by
overlapping for the time span from June, 2021, to March, 2022. bilinear regression, is − 2.2 cm/year in the ascending orbit (move-
We have smoothed the time series using a moving average win- ment away from the satellite) and 1.3 cm/year in the descending
dow of three acquisitions. The total displacement is greater in orbit (towards the satellite). After this date, the velocity decreases
the ascending LOS direction, reaching 7 cm of deformation away to − 0.43 cm/year and 0.23 cm/year, respectively. Notably, the time
from the satellite; meanwhile, in the descending LOS direction, series of dataset 2 shows a strong correlation with dataset 1 in the
the total displacement is 4.5 cm towards the satellite. The trend of overlapping period and continues with a similar trend.
both time series changes around the mid-end of 2018, showing an
unambiguous deceleration of the landslide head. We applied an Discussion
automated classification method proposed by Berti et al. (2013)
to categorize PS. Those above the stability threshold within the Ground deformation
landslide head display a bilinear or discontinuous behaviour in The Arcos de la Frontera landslide occurs in an environmental
their time series. This behaviour is characterized by two linear setting that presents some challenges to InSAR techniques,
tracts of different velocities separated by a break point, consist- particularly related to land cover and slope orientation. The
ently indicating deceleration. The average time series (Fig. 9) PS in the LOS velocity maps (Figs. 6 and 8) are confined to the
reveals a break point date of November, 2018, for the ascending urban area, as there are no natural targets with stable scattering

Fig. 8  a Mean velocity in LOS obtained from the ascending orbit for the period 2021–2023 (dataset 2) of the landslide head. b Mean velocity
in LOS obtained from the descending orbit for the period 2021–2023 (dataset 2) of the landslide head

Landslides
 Technical Note

Fig. 9  Average LOS displacement TS of all the PS contained within the landslide head area in ascending and descending orbits

properties on the slope covered by low herbs and shrub vegetation decorrelation—a key factor driving coherence loss (Hanssen 2001).
(e.g. Wasowski and Pisano 2020). Consequently, the StaMPS method In the StaMPS algorithm, PS candidates are selected based on the
using C-band data does not detect features in this specific terrain, temporal coherence of nearby pixels; therefore, the high temporal
preventing us from obtaining information about the dynamics of decorrelation of the pixels surrounding the building could hinder
the middle and the foot of the landslide. However, the urbanized their selection at that site. We tried less restrictive values of initial
head of the landslide shows a high PS density providing spatially DA and weeding thresholds, but there were not selected PS in that
extensive information (e.g. Bianchini et al. 2015; Guerriero et al. location in any case. The opposite LOS directions between orbits
2021). The LOS velocity maps in both orbits and displacement indicate a strong horizontal component. It is crucial to acknowledge
TS (Fig. 7) clearly highlight that the head of the landslide was the non-homogeneous direction of motion at the head of the
active with LOS rates of more than 2 cm/year at least until mid- landslide, influenced by factors such as the maximum local slope
2018, in accordance to previous works (Béjar-Pizarro et al. 2017; and shear surface. For instance, in the western part of the landslide
Bru et al. 2017). During the initial InSAR period (2016–2022), no head, cracks in the pavement and tachymeter surveys indicate a
PS was identified in the vicinity of buildings R-5 and R-6. This motion direction of 330°NE around building R-6, which transitions
absence could be attributed to the gradual deterioration of urban to about 280°NE uphill La Verbena. However, in the eastern part
elements, including pavement, stairs, and walls, as well as vegetation of the landslide head, the local slope and the orientation of cracks
growth around these structures due to a lack of maintenance in in the buildings beneath the main scarp suggest a significant N-S
the studied period. These ground surface modifications become component in that area (refer to Fig. 10). Importantly, SAR satellites
evident when examining photographs taken between 2009 and with quasi-polar orbits are insensitive to N-S motion, limiting the
2022 (see Fig. S6 in the Supplementary Material). Such alterations deformation analysis derived from such data in these areas. These
can lead to changes in the scattering characteristics of the terrain directional limitations in the satellite data could lead to biases in
between two consecutive SAR acquisitions, causing temporal the interpretation of both vertical and horizontal movements in

Landslides
the scarp area. The insensitivity to N-S motion means that the within the landslide head in the ascending orbit during the first
full extent of deformation, particularly in the eastern part of the period (from early 2016 to mid-2018) exceeds 2 cm/year and sub-
landslide head, might not be accurately captured. Consequently, sequently decreases to values close to the stability threshold. The
the analysis may underestimate the true magnitude and nature maximum values of single PS for the period prior to the decelera-
of deformation in these specific regions (Brouwer and Hanssen tion are greater, reaching 3.8 cm/year in the LOS ascending orbit.
2021). Anyhow, the vertical projection of the deformation with the The deformation rate magnitude recorded in the first period is
selected approach (Fig. 8a) highlights subsidence below the main in concordance with previous InSAR studies. We have also com-
scarp at the eastern part of the head of the landslide for the first pared the LOS velocities with the European Ground Motion Ser-
studied period, remarkably reducing its magnitude after mid-2018. vice (EGMS) products showing a very good agreement for both
The horizontal E-W projection (Fig. 8b) assumes all the horizontal geometries. In Fig. 11 we have plotted the average landslide head
movement is along this direction, which is identified in the western descending LOS time series of the Envisat results from April, 2011,
part of the head of the landslide and La Verbena neighbourhood, to February, 2012 (Bru et al. 2017), with the Sentinel-1 results from
but is not observed throughout the entire head of the landslide. The the EGMS calibrated product (https://​egms.​land.​coper​nicus.​eu/)
discrepancy in the maximum horizontal projected values for the and our StaMPS results for the period 2016–2023. Assuming a con-
studied period, being situated at the northwest rather than in La stant rate for the non-data period, we can estimate a total LOS dis-
Verbena as indicated in prior studies (Béjar-Pizarro et al. 2017; Bru placement of more than 10 cm for the period 2011–2023.
et al. 2017), can be attributed to the absence of persistent scatterers The reason to process the second period of June, 2021, to March,
(PS) near buildings R-5 and R-6, which obscures the movement in 2023, was to retrieve information of the current situation in the
that area. The southern part of building R-6 exhibits a movement landslide head after the end of the local stabilization works. Being
direction of 330°NE, indicating that the purely horizontal E-W a shorter period and therefore reducing the temporal decorrelation
projection underestimates the real displacement magnitude. effect, PS could be detected at the location of the most affected
The displacement TS have a similar trend in both geometries, buildings, R-5 and R-6. Although the deformation in this period is
showing a deceleration after mid-2018. This behaviour is common drastically reduced compared to the previous mid-2018, the ascend-
to all the PS of the landslide head, stressing that although the direc- ing orbit clearly captures a differential movement of building R-6,
tion of movement is heterogeneous, the deceleration occurred in which indicates that the tilting process is still active. However,
the entire landslide head. The average LOS velocity of all the PS we cannot determine if the ongoing tilting is caused by the soil

Fig. 10  Interpreted directions of motion at the landslide

Landslides
 Technical Note

Fig. 11  Average descending LOS time series of all the PS within the landslide head from the Envisat satellite (Bru et al. 2017) and the Senti-
nel-1 satellite, from the EGMS-calibrated product and the StaMPS datasets processed in this work (descending orbits). The dashed red lines
indicate the dates of the tachymeter surveys. The three phases of local stabilization works are also illustrated

movement or due to the failure of the foundation itself. In any case, event caused a 5-m rise in the groundwater table, which was being
the TS of this more recent period underscores that the movement measured at that time, and led to an increase in reported urban
is ongoing at extremely low rates. damages (Bru et al. 2017). The potential mechanism behind the
observed acceleration during periods of higher rainfall is the
gradual reduction in suction on the sliding clayey materials.
InSAR results versus local stabilization works and in situ measurements This reduction can decrease the effective stress and strength,
consequently compromising slope stability (López-Vinielles et al.
In terms of comparing the InSAR results with the stabilization 2020). These observations suggest that the landslide reacts to
works, a noteworthy observation is that the change in the time rainfall, but the stabilization of the landslide head is attributed to
series (TS) trend is consistent across all persistent scatterers the improvement of geotechnical properties of soil through the jet
(PS) above the stability threshold, suggesting a uniform grouting works rather than a reduction in average precipitation.
deceleration of deformation behaviour throughout the entire We made a comparison between our InSAR results and the out-
head of the landslide. This implies that the local stabilization comes of the technical report on the monitoring of movements
works conducted in La Verbena neighbourhood have effectively using tachymeter surveys (Cobo 2021). The InSAR results show
stabilized the entire landslide head. Nevertheless, the absence of that the phases I and II of the local stabilization works performed
InSAR information in the middle part and foot of the landslide between 2011 and 2014 were not effective to stop the head landslide
prevents us from determining if the local stabilization works have motion. In 2014, the second tachymeter survey (TS-2 in Fig. 11),
influenced these regions. During our field inspection at the end of conducted when there is no InSAR data, suggested that the motion
2022, we observed ongoing shallow movement phenomena, such had ceased. However, the third survey in 2017 (TS-3) revealed a
as creeping. We have dismissed the idea that there is a relationship reactivation of motion in the treated area TA-3, corresponding to
between the deceleration of the head of the landslide and the the location of buildings R-2, R-3, and R-4 (Fig. 5). Subsequently, in
rainfall rates during the studied period by InSAR. The graphs February, 2018, phase III commenced. The InSAR results demon-
in Fig. S7 of the Supplementary Material display the average strate that the drainage and injections started becoming effective
line-of-sight (LOS) displacements (TS) of all the PS within the between the mid- and end of 2018. Tachymeter surveys in August,
landslide head area (in both ascending and descending orbits), 2019, and February, 2020 (TS-4 and TS-5, respectively) identified a
along with accumulated monthly rainfall data. The distribution reactivation of adverse movements in the treated areas TA-1 and
of monthly precipitation varies over the years, but in terms of TA-2, although InSAR monitoring did not capture them. It must be
total accumulated rainfall, the years 2019–2023 are not drier than considered that the tachymeter information we handle is limited
the period 2015–2017 (Fig. S8 in the Supplementary Material). to the direction of motion, but we lack quantitative measurements.
Nevertheless, an acceleration of the landslide head movement In the June, 2021, survey (TS-6), movement in the treated area TA-2
is observed in both geometries around March, 2018, when the had begun to reverse, while no movement was detected in TA-1 and
accumulated rainfall surpassed 350 mm. Another peak in rainfall TA-3. However, descending InSAR results for the period of 2021–2023
occurred in December, 2022, exceeding 250 mm, resulting in a reveal extremely slow movement in the eastern area of La Verbena,
slight acceleration only appreciable in the ascending orbit. Prior indicating the possibility of ongoing motion in these regions. Fur-
to the time interval studied with InSAR, there was another period thermore, the technical report on the monitoring of movements
of intense rainfall in December, 2009, and February, 2010, with using tachymeter surveys suggests that movements could persist
monthly peaks of accumulated rainfall exceeding 330 mm. This until the repair of foundations and urbanization is complete.

Landslides
Conclusion Acknowledgements
In this study, we used InSAR products to perform a long-term We would like to thank Alejandro A. Cobo Fernández for pro-
motion analysis of a slow-moving planar slide earthflow in Arcos viding the jet grouting locations, tachymeter survey informa-
de la Frontera (Spain), a phenomenon causing significant urban tion, and cross-hole seismic pair data, as well as the personal
damages. Our primary objective was to assess the effectiveness of communications.
local stabilization works, which involved draining the western part
of the slope head and implementing jet grouting via boreholes to Funding
improve both bearing capacity and relative density of the ground This work was supported by project UNDERGY, subsidized by the
in La Verbena neighbourhood area. The results are significant, Center for Industrial Technological Development (CDTI), within
demonstrating that the local stabilization works in La Verbena the framework of the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience
neighbourhood have effectively stabilized the entire head of the Plan and the State Program for Business Leadership in R&D&I,
landslide and influenced a much larger area beyond the zone of the of the State Plan for Scientific and Technical Research and Inno-
local interventions. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that the vation 2021–2023, and project PID2020-116540RB-C22 funded by
assessment of the improvements in the middle part and foot of the MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and project EGMS RASTOOL:
slope remains uncertain due to limitations in InSAR data. There- European ground motion risk assessment tool (Grant Agreement
fore, while positive effects on the stability of the landslide head are No. 101048474) funded by the European Commission, Directorate-
observed, we cannot conclusively state an overall improvement in General Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection (ECHO).
stability across all regions of the slope.
We made a comprehensive review of historical and recent urban Data availability
damages attributed to the landslide motion. The background of Data sets generated during the current study are available from the
this slope instability highlights the need for geological risk stud- corresponding author on reasonable request. EGMS data is avail-
ies prior to urban development plans. We conducted on-site field able at https://​egms.​land.​coper​nicus.​eu/.
assessments to document the current state of urban damages and
geomorphological features. We also described the local stabilization Declarations
works undertaken and compared the in-situ tachymetry surveys
with our InSAR data. We have generated mean line-of-sight (LOS) Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
velocity maps and displacement time series using Sentinel-1 SAR
images in both ascending and descending orbits, covering a period
exceeding 7 years (from 2016 to 2023) divided into two periods. The
displacement time series from both orbits exhibit a deceleration
of the entire landslide head after mid-2018. The vertical projec-
tion of the deformation highlights significant activity beneath the
main scarp until mid-2018. The analysis of the second SAR dataset
indicates that the landslide remains active, albeit with an extremely Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
slow velocity. Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
The use of InSAR has contributed to have an improved spatial adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or for-
picture of the displacements in this site, supplying data outside the mat, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s)
in-situ monitoring area and adding valuable information of the and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence,
stabilization work effects. Our results reinforce the advantages of and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party
implementing InSAR techniques as a complementary tool to geo- material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Com-
technical monitoring. The X-band data provided by commercial mons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
satellites with finer resolution (such as StripMap COSMO-Skymed material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Com-
with a spatial resolution of 3 × 3 m), coupled with the application mons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
of a purely PS InSAR method, would likely enhance the measure- regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
ments of the urbanized area. However, it is remarkable that the permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of
use of medium-resolution S1 C-band SAR data has produced valu- this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
able results. The accessibility of free historic S1 data, consistent
revisit times, and the upcoming S1-C mission with increased data
frequency make it a versatile option for geotechnical monitor-
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