12 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Practical Research 2
Quarter 4 – Module 4:
The Methods in Quantitative Research

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 What is It
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology simply refers to the practical “how” of any given topic of
research. More specifically, it is about how a researcher systematically designs a study
to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims and objectives.

For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:

What data to collect (and what data to ignore)

Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
How to analyze it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

What are the Methods of Quantitative Research?

The methods and techniques used in writing research paper gauge to answer the
research questions and in collecting data. Realizing the appropriate design of your
research is an initial act of your study.

Survey
According to Sukamolson, (2007), Survey research includes the use of scientific
sampling method with a designed questionnaire to quantify a given population's
characteristics using statistical methods.

More concisely Sukamolson, (2007) further describes survey as a form of

quantitative research that is concerned with ‘sampling questionnaire, questionnaire
design, questionnaire administration’ for the sake of gathering information from the
group/population under study, and then make analysis to better understand their
behavior and characteristics. In addition, Kraemer (1991) outline three basic beliefs in
survey research, such as survey which is used to describe quantitatively a sectional
aspect of a given populations that involves studying the relationship, in survey research
method, data are obtained from people , and lastly, survey sample a part of population
which is later used to generalize the whole population, i.e a section of a population is
sampled to represent the whole population characteristics, viewpoint as well as opinion
as the case maybe.
Correlational

A quantitative methodology used to determine whether, and to what degree, a

relationship exists between two or more variables within a population (or a sample).
The degree of relationships is expressed by correlation coefficients. Coefficients range
from +1.00 to -1.00. Higher correlations (coefficients closer to +1.00 or -1.00) indicate
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stronger relationships. Positive correlations indicate that as the values associated with
one variable go up, so do the values associated with the other. Negative correlations
indicate that as the values associated with one variable go up, the values associated with
the other go down. But tracing on this, Leedy & Ormrod (2010) remark that correlation
method of research deals with the creating relationship amid two or more variables in
the same population. “The first type of correlational design, explanatory design, is
conducted when researchers want to explore the extents to which two or more
variables co- vary, that is, where changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the
other (Creswell, 2008, p. 358). The second type of correlational design, prediction
design, is used by researchers when the purpose of the study is to predict certain
outcomes in one variable from another variable that serves asthe predictor.

Experimental
In the experimental research, the researcher investigates the treatment of an
intervention into the study group and then measures the outcomes of the treatment.
There are three types of exploratory approaches: a. pre-
experimental
b. true experimental
c. quasi-experimental

According to Leedy & Ormrod, (2001). The pre-experimental design involves an

independent variable that does not vary or a control group that is not randomly
selected. Campbell and Stanley (1963) endorsed the true experimental design, which
provides a higher degree of control in the experiment and produces a higher degree of
validity. The true experimental designs result in a systemic approach to quantitative
data collection involving mathematical models in the analyses. Whereas the quasi-
experimental design involves nonrandom selection of study participants. Therefore,
control is limited, and true experimentation is not possible. Since the variable cannot be
controlled, validity may be sacrificed. The factorial design focuses on two or more
categories with the independent variables as compared to the dependent variable (Vogt,
1999). Key, (1997) describes experimental research as a form of research whereby a
researcher takes control and maintains the basic elements that might affect the result of
an experiment, by so doing; the researcher predicts the outcome of an experiment.
While experimental design is the synopsis that guides a researcher while testing his
hypothesis inorder to reach a tangible conclusion on the relationship concerning an
independent variable and a dependent variable.
Experiment deals with the process of supporting, rejecting, or validating a
hypothesis to get insight into the cause and effect of something when certain factors are
being manipulated. For example, someone may carry out a basic experiment to
understand the existence of gravity while others basically scientists carry out
experiment for years depending on the subject matter to be experimented.

Causal-Comparative or Ex Post Facto

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 According to Gay (1976), Ex post facto implies "from after the fact” which means ex-
post facto research, where the researcher investigates a problem by studying the
variables in survey. It is research in which the dependent variable is immediately
observable and now the main concern is to find out the backgrounds that gave rise to
this consequence. – In addition, a causal- comparative study is a form of study that tries
to identify and determine the cause and effect of the relationship between two or more
groups where the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for pre-
existing differences in groups of individuals.

Here are the differences and similarities between causal-comparative and

correlational studies:

• The causal-comparative study looks at differences between groups whiles

correlational study looks for relationships of variables within a single group.
• Causal-comparative and correlational studies are similar in that both used to examine
relationships among variables.
• Causal comparative includes categorical independent and or dependent variable but
the correlational study only includes quantitative variables.
• Causal-comparative research provides better evidence of cause and effect
relationships than correlational research.
• Like correlational research, causal-comparative research is sometimes treated as a
type of descriptive research since it too describes conditions that already exist.
SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling means selecting from a huge number of respondents or

participants to answer your research questions. The entire population is involved but
for your research study, you need to select only apart from the whole because it is
doubtful that researcher should be able to collect data from all cases. Thus, there is a
need to select a sample. The entire set of cases from which researcher sample is drawn
in called the population. Since, researchers neither have time nor the resources to
analysis the entire population so they apply sampling technique to reduce the number
of cases. (Taherdoost, Hamed. 2016)
Figure 1 illustrates the stages that are likely to go through when
conducting sampling in your research.

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 Figure 1. Sampling Process Steps
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Research_M
ethodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research

Stage 1: Clearly Define Target Population

The first stage in the sampling process is to clearly define target population.
Population is commonly related to the number of people living in a particular
country. In other words, this group of individuals, that the intervention intends to
conduct research in and draw conclusions from.

Stage2: Select Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is a list of the actual cases from which sample will be drawn. The
sampling frame must be representative of the population. The 'list' may be an actual
listing of units, as in a phone book from which phone numbers will be sampled, or some
other description of the population, such as a map from which areas will be sampled.

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 Stage 3: Choose Sampling Technique

Before examining the different types of sampling method, it is important to

note on what is meant by sampling besides with reasons why researchers are likely to
select a sample. Taking a division from chosen sampling frame or entire population is
called sampling. Sampling can be used to make inference about a population or to make
generalization in relation to existing theory. In essence, this depends on choice of
sampling technique.
Sampling techniques can be divided into two types: The Probability or random
sampling and the Non- probability or non- random sampling. This was clearly discussed
in the previous modules in the Practical Research 1 in the First Semester.
Before choosing specific type of sampling technique, it is needed to decide broad
sampling technique. Figure 2 shows the various types of sampling techniques.

exity of the population, the aims of the researcher and the kinds of statistical manipulation that
will be used in data analysis. While the larger the sample the lesser the likelihood that findings
will be biased does hold, diminishing returns can quickly set in when samples get over a specific
size which need to be balanced against the researcher’s resources (Gill et al., 2010). To put it
bluntly, larger sample sizes reduce sampling error but at a decreasing rate. Several statistical
formulas are available for determining sample size.
Stage 5: Collect Data
After having a target population, sampling frame, sampling technique and
sample size have been established, the next step is to collect data coming from the
subjects of your research study.

Stage 6: Assess Response Rate

Response rate is the number of cases agreeing to take part in the

study. These cases are taken from original sample. In reality, most researchers never
achieve a 100 percent response rate. Reasons for this might include refusal to respond,
ineligibility to respond, inability to respond, or the respondent has been located but
researchers are unable to make contact. In sum, response rate is important because
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each nonresponse is liable to bias the final sample. Clearly defining sample, employing
the right sampling technique, and generating a large sample, in some respects can help
to reduce the likelihood of sample bias.

Developing an Instrument to Measure Research Skills

The main objective in conducting research for all students is to develop them as
competent researchers and acquired the knowledge and skills of conducting and
disseminating his or her research in a particular field of research. This has been the
focus in most of the programmes by research (Dodani & LaPorte (2008), Murtonen
(2005) & Sveiby (2001).

The following are the five-phase model for development of questionnaire:

Step I

A review of literature on the development of ability to conduct research was

carried out in this step. Therefore, researchers must be equipped with competence in
providing and selecting evidence on the components or construct of research to be used
in his/her study.

The review revealed that there were many components of research skills
involved. A few of the studies do develop their own instruments to measure the skills
(Gilmore & Feldon (2010), Kardash (2000), Powers & Enright (1987)). It is serious for
this study to measure adequately the knowledge and skills to conduct research, so open
ended items may not be suitable to adapt for the study. Similarly instruments that are to
be completed by an external observer to measure the student research abilities were
also felt not appropriate. This is because an instrument that require student themselves
to evaluate or self-

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assessed their research knowledge and skills is being required. Since none is
found suitable for the study, the researchers decided to develop one. A review
was carried out to identify the constructs of research skills that are deemed
important to conduct research. There were a range of skills necessary for
research and there were different labels being used for similar constructs.

Step II

After identifying the concept, and defining it operationally, items were

developed for each construct. Some of the items from existing instruments
which are available in the literature were adapted. The rest of the items were
developed by the researchers based on the operational definition of the
construct. A Liker-type of scale was preferred where students were asked to
tick against each item.

Example:

Construct Sample of item for the construct

The use of Protective Equipment in TVL I am confident wearing of PPE during

laboratory time

Step III

The draft items were then reviewed by the researcher and place the items
according to the constructs it belongs based using the operational definitions
and sent to the subject teacher for validation.

Step IV

The next phase, involved item analysis, using and the output of the
analysis on inter-correlations between the items and its constructs. A few
items were deleted if it is not in line with the construct.

Step V

The reliability for each construct was again computed to see the
reliabilities of the constructs were sufficiently high, the instrument is ready
for use.
What is Research Intervention?

Research intervention is the heart of the study where strategies

employed to minimize the problem handled by the researcher. It is the
treatment for the problem tackled by the researcher/s. It is characterized by
both the design and development of interventions. Design involves the
specification of an intervention. This includes determining the extent to which
an intervention is defined by explicit practice principles, goals, and activities
needed for enhancement of the research conducted. Some interventions are
highly responsive to dialogue and the hermeneutics of exchange between
intervention agents and participants (Wolpe 1969).

The development of intervention is generally coming from the interest of

the researcher/s to stop or help the problem to be solved.

Data Collection & Analysis Procedure

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The
goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to
rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer
to questions that have been posed. An accurate data collection is essential to
maintaining the integrity of research (Kabir 2016).

Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically

computed. It measures the uses of different scales, which can be classified as
nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Quantitative
approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic
standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask
questions. These approaches have an advantage that they are cheaper to
implement and consistent so comparisons can be easily made, and the size of
the effect can usually be measured. However, it is limited in the capacity for the
investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.

The Quantitative data collection methods trust on random sampling and

structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into
programmed response categories. They produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.
Characteristic quantitative data gathering strategies include:

1. Experiments/clinical trials.

2. Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of

patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day during the
Pandemic).

3. Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

4. Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).

5. In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured

than in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a
standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a
distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with
potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation.

6. Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to many people and saves the

researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to
the questionnaires regarding controversial issues since their responses are
anonymous.

Ethical Norms in data collection

There are several reasons why it is important to obey to ethical norms

in research.

1. Promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance

of error.

Example: Prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting

research data promote the truth and avoid error.

2. Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and

coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and
fairness.

Example: Many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship,

copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality
rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests
while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for
their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed
prematurely.
3. Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
4. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
People more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality
and integrity of research.
5. Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important
moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights,
animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public.
Example: A researcher who constructs data in a clinical trial may harm or even
kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or
the health and safety of staff and students.

Guidelines in Writing Research Methodology

In this section, it is measured on how the researchers plan to tackle the

research problem. It will provide a work plan and describe the activities
necessary for the completion of the project. The methodology chapter explains
what the researcher did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate
the reliability and validity of the research. But before visiting the guidelines
in writing research methodology, let us know first the deeper meaning of the
word “methodology”.

It is the systematic and academic analysis of the methods applied to a

field of study. It includes the academic examination of the body of methods and
principles associated with a branch of knowledge. Typically, it encompasses
concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and quantitative or
qualitative techniques. (Irny and Rose, 2005) A methodology does not set out
to provide solutions but not the same thing as a method. Instead, it offers an
academic supporting for understanding which method, set of methods or best
practices which can be applied to specific case.

Research methodology is a set of systematic technique used in

research. This simply means a guide to research and how it is conducted. It
describes and analysis methods, throws more light on their limitations and
resources, clarify their pre-suppositions and consequences, relating their
potentialities to the twilight zone at the frontiers of knowledge (Igwenagu,
Chinelo2016).
For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following
sections:

1. Study design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment?

What kind of design do you choose (descriptive, cross-sectional, case-
control)?
2. Selection of research location - (Where was the study conducted?)
3. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study? What kind of
sampling method / procedure do you use? You will need to decide on
the inclusion and exclusion criteria?
4. Sample size – you need to calculate your sample size based on the type
of study you are conducting. There are several formulas for sample size
calculation.

5. Study instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or

questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and
reliable?

6. Data collection - How do you plan to carry out your study? What
activities are involved? How long does it take?

7. Data analysis and interpretation – this includes plans for processing

and coding data, computer software to be used (eg Statistical Package
for Social Sciences / SPSS, EPI-INFO, etc), choice of statistical methods,
confidence levels, significance levels etc. It is also convenient to provide
even not final tables for the data you plan to analyze from your study.

8. Ethical considerations – It is necessary to have a thorough review of

your work if it is in line with the ethics on research.