PROGRAMMING NOTES

Data Types
 A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind
of data they represent
 Computers use different data types to represent different types of data
in a program
 The basic data types include:
o Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or
negative
 Examples: 10, -5, 0
o Real: used to represent decimal numbers, either positive or
negative
 Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
o Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit
or symbol
 Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
o String: used to represent a sequence of characters
 Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%
o Boolean: used to represent true or false values
 Examples: True, False

We can declare variables as follows:

Python
Syntax variable_name = value
Example x = 5
It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure
accuracy and efficiency in the program.

Worked Example
Name and describe the most appropriate programming data type for each of
the examples of data given. Each data type must be different[6]

Data: 83
Data type name: Integer [1 mark]
Data type description: The number is a whole number [1 mark]

Data: [email protected]
Data type name: String [1 mark]
Data type description: It is a group of characters [1 mark]

Data: True
Data type name: Boolean [1 mark]
Data type description: The value is True (or could be False) [1 mark]
Variables & Constants
Variables and constants are used to store data in a program. Variables can
be changed during program execution while constants remain the same.

Declaring Variables and Constants

 Variables are declared using a data type, a name and a value

(optional)
 Constants are declared using the 'const' keyword, a name and a value
 In all programming languages, variable names should follow certain
rules, such as starting with a letter and not containing spaces
 Examples of data types include integer, float, boolean, and string

Examples in Pseudocode:

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10

score ← 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

const PI ← 3.14

Examples in Python:

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10

score = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

PI = 3.14

Exam Tip
Exam questions will ask you to write pseudocode statements, rather than in
a specific language

Worked Example
The variables 'name' and 'age' are used to store data in a program:

 name stores the user’s name

 age stores the user’s age

Write pseudocode statements to declare the variables name and age.[2]

DECLARE name : STRING [1 mark]
DECLARE age : INTEGER [1 mark

Input & Output

Output refers to the process of displaying or saving the results of a program
to the user.

Pseudocode example:

OUTPUT "Hello, ", name

Python example:

print("Hello, ", name)

Input
Input refers to the process of providing data or information to a program.

'User Input' is data or information entered by the user during program

execution.

Pseudocode example:

OUTPUT "Enter your name"

INPUT name

Python example:

name = input("Enter your name: ")

Exam Tip
Remember to prompt the user for input clearly, and format the output to
make it readable and understandable.

Sequence
What is Sequence?

 Sequence is a concept that involves executing instructions in a

particular order
 It is used in programming languages to perform tasks in a step-by-step
manner
 Sequence is a fundamental concept in computer science and is used in
many programming languages
Pseudocode example:

PRINT "Hello, World!"

x←5

y←10

z← x + y

PRINT z

Python example:

print("Hello, World!")

x = 5

y = 10

z = x + y

print(z)

Exam Tip
Always remember to write your instructions in the order in which you want
them to be executed

Selection
Selection is a programming concept that allows you to execute different sets
of instructions based on certain conditions. There are two main types of
selection statements: IF statements and CASE statements.

If Statements
IF statements allow you to execute a set of instructions if a condition is true.
They have the following syntax:

IF condition THEN
instructions
ENDIF

Pseudocode example:

x← 5
IF x > 0 THEN
 PRINT "x is positive"
ENDIF

Python example:

x = 5
if x > 0:
print("x is positive")

IF ELSE Statements

If else statements are used to execute one set of statements if a condition is

true and a different set of statements if the condition is false. They have the
following syntax:

IF condition THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF

Pseudocode example:

x ← 5
IF x > 0 THEN
PRINT "x is positive"
ELSE
PRINT “x is negative”
ENDIF
Python example:

x = 5
if x > 0:
print("x is positive")
else:
print("x is negative")

IF ELSE IF Statements

If else if statements are used to test multiple conditions and execute

different statements for each condition. They have the following syntax:
IF condition THEN
Instructions
ELSE IF condition THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:

x ← 5
IF x > 0 THEN
PRINT "x is positive"
ELSE IF x < 0 THEN
PRINT “x is negative”
ELSE
PRINT “x is 0”
ENDIF
Python example:

x = 5
if x > 0:
print("x is positive")
elif x < 0:
print("x is negative")
else:
print("x is 0")

Worked Example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:

 Inputs 3 numbers
 Outputs the largest of the three numbers[3]
INPUT a, b, c
IF a > b AND a > c THEN PRINT a (1 mark)
ELSE IF b > c THEN PRINT b (1 mark)
ELSE PRINT c (1 mark)

Case Statements

CASE statements allow you to execute different sets of instructions based on

the value of a variable. They have the following syntax:

SELECT CASE variable

CASE value1
instructions
 CASE value2
instructions
...
CASE ELSE
instructions
END SELECT
Pseudocode example:

SELECT CASE number

CASE 1
PRINT "Monday"
CASE 2
PRINT "Tuesday"
CASE 3
PRINT “Wednesday”
CASE 4
PRINT “Thursday”
CASE 5
PRINT “Friday”
CASE 6
PRINT “Saturday”
CASE 7
PRINT “Sunday”
CASE ELSE
PRINT "Invalid number"
END SELECT
Python example:

match (number)
case 1:
print "Monday";
case 2:
print "Tuesday";
case 3:
print "Wednesday";
case 4:
print "Thursday";
case 5:
print "Friday";
case 6:
print "Saturday";
case 7:
print "Sunday";
case _:
Exam Tip

 Make sure to include all necessary components in the selection

statement: the condition, the statement(s) to execute when the
condition is true, and any optional statements to execute when the
condition is false
 Use proper indentation to make the code easier to read and
understand
 Be careful with the syntax of the programming language being used,
as it may differ slightly between languages
 Make sure to test the selection statement with various input values to
ensure that it works as expected

Iteration
Iteration is the process of repeating a set of instructions until a specific
condition is met. It is an important programming concept and is used to
automate repetitive tasks.

There are three main types of iteration:

 Count-controlled loops
 Precondition loops
 Postcondition loops

Count-controlled Loops

 A count-controlled loop is used when the number of iterations is known

beforehand
 It is also known as a definite loop
 It uses a counter variable that is incremented or decremented after
each iteration
 The loop continues until the counter reaches a specific value

Example in Pseudocode:

count ← 1
FOR i <= 10
OUTPUT count
count ← count + 1
END FOR
Example in Python:

for count in range(1, 11):

print(count)
Pre-condition Loops

 A precondition loop is used when the number of iterations is not known

beforehand and is dependent on a condition being true
 It is also known as an indefinite loop
 The loop will continue to execute while the condition is true and will
stop once the condition becomes false

Example in Pseudocode:

INPUT temperature
WHILE temperature > 37
OUTPUT "Patient has a fever"
INPUT temperature
END WHILE
Example in Python:

temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

while temperature > 37:
print("Patient has a fever")
temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))
Postcondition Loops

 A post-condition loop is used when the loop must execute at least

once, even if the condition is false from the start
 The condition is checked at the end of the loop

Example in Pseudocode:

REPEAT
INPUT guess
UNTIL guess = 42

Example in Python:
Postcondition loops don’t exist in Python and would need to be
restructured to a precondition loop

Totalling

 Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop

 A total variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop,
such as:

Pseudocode example:
total ← 0
for i ← 1 to 10
input num
total ← total + num
next i
output total
Python example:

total = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
total += num
print("Total:", total)
Counting
Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event
occurs
A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such
as:
Pseudocode example:

count ← 0
for i ← 1 to 10
input num
if num > 5 then
ount ← count + 1
end if
next i
output count
Python example:

count = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if num > 5:
count += 1
print("Count:", count)
Worked Example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:

 Inputs 20 numbers
 Outputs how many of these numbers are greater than 50 [3]

FOR x ← 1 TO 20 (1 mark)
INPUT Number
 IF Number > 50 THEN Total ←
(1 mark)
Total + 1
NEXT x
PRINT total (1 mark)
String Handling

 Strings are a sequence of characters, such as letters, numbers, and

symbols
 They are used to represent text in a computer program
 String handling refers to the various operations that can be performed
on strings

Length:

 The length of a string is the number of characters it contains

 In Python, the len() function is used to find the length of a string
 In Java, the length() method is used to find the length of a string
 In Visual Basic, the Len() function is used to find the length of a string

Substring:

 A substring is a portion of a string

 In Python, the substring can be obtained using the slicing operator [:]
 In Java, the substring() method is used to obtain a substring
 In Visual Basic, the Mid() function is used to obtain a substring

Upper:

 The upper() method converts all characters of a string to uppercase

 In Python, the upper() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
 In Java, the toUpperCase() method is used to convert a string to
uppercase
 In Visual Basic, the UCase() function is used to convert a string to
uppercase

Lower:

 The lower() method converts all characters of a string to lowercase

 In Python, the lower() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
 In Java, the toLowerCase() method is used to convert a string to
lowercase
 In Visual Basic, the LCase() function is used to convert a string to
lowercase

Pseudocode example:
string phrase ← "Save my exams"
length ← LENGTH(phrase)
substring ← SUBSTRING(phrase, 5, 2)
upper ← TO_UPPER(phrase)
lower ← TO_LOWER(phrase)
Python example:

phrase = "Save my exams"

length = len(phrase)
substring = phrase[4:6]
upper = phrase.upper()
lower = phrase.lower()

Position of First Character:

 The first character of a string can be at position zero or one, depending

on the programming language
 In Python and Java, the first character of a string is at position zero
 In Visual Basic, the first character of a string is at position one

Worked Example
The function Length(x) finds the length of a string x. The function
substring(x,y,z) finds a substring of x starting at position y and z characters
long. The first character in x is in position 1.

Write pseudocode statements to:

 Store the string “Save my exams” in x

 Find the length of the string and output it
 Extract the word exams from the string and output it [6]

X ← "Save my exams" One mark for storing string in X.

OUTPUT Length(X) One mark for calling the function length. One mark for using the correct
parameter X.
Y ←9
Z ←4
OUTPUT SubString(X,Y,Z) One mark for using the substring function. One mark for correct
parameters.
One mark for outputting length and substring return values.

Exam Tip

 Remember that the length of a string is not the same as the index of
the last character in the string
  Be careful when counting positions in a string, as the first character
can be at position zero or one depending on the programming
language

Arithmetic Operators

 Addition (+): Adds two values together

 Subtraction (-): Subtracts one value from another
 Division (/): Divides one value by another
 Multiplication (*): Multiplies two values together
 Exponentiation (^): Raises a number to a power
 Modulo (MOD): Returns the remainder of a division operation
 Integer Division (DIV): Returns the whole number of a division
operation

Pseudocode example:

a ←5
b ←3
c ←a + b
d ←a - b
e ←a * b
f ←a / b
g ← a MOD b
h ←a ^ b
i ← a DIV b
Python example:

a = 5
b = 3
c = a + b
d = a - b
e = a * b
f = a / b
g = a % b
h = a ** b
i = a // b

Logical Operators

 Equal to (=): Returns true if two values are equal

 Less than (<): Returns true if the first value is less than the second
value
 Less than or equal to (<=): Returns true if the first value is less than or
equal to the second value
  Greater than (>): Returns true if the first value is greater than the
second value
 Greater than or equal to (>=): Returns true if the first value is greater
than or equal to the second value
 Not equal to (<>): Returns true if two values are not equal

Pseudocode example:

a ←5
b ←3
c ← (a = b)
d ← (a < b)
e ← (a <= b)
f ← (a > b)
g ← (a >= b)
h ← (a <> b)
Python example:

a = 5
b = 3
c = (a == b)
d = (a < b)
e = (a <= b)
f = (a > b)
g = (a >= b)
h = (a != b)

Boolean Operators
Boolean operators are logical operators that can be used to compare two or
more values and return a Boolean value (True or False) based on the
comparison. There are 3 you need to know:

 AND: Returns True if both conditions are True

 OR: Returns True if one or both conditions are True
 NOT: Returns the opposite of the condition (True if False, False if True)

Boolean Operators in Pseudocode:

IF (condition1 AND condition2) THEN

// code to execute if both conditions are True
END IF
IF (condition1 OR condition2) THEN
// code to execute if one or both conditions are True
END IF
IF NOT(condition) THEN
// code to execute if the condition is False
END IF
Boolean Operators in Python:

if condition1 and condition2:

# code to execute if both conditions are True
if condition1 or condition2:
# code to execute if one or both conditions are True
if not condition:
# code to execute if the condition is False

Exam Tip

 Boolean operators are often used in conditional statements such as if,

while, and for loops
 Boolean operators can be combined with comparison operators such as
== (equal to), != (not equal to), < (less than), > (greater than), <=
(less than or equal to), and >= (greater than or equal to)
 Be careful when using the NOT operator, as it can sometimes lead to
unexpected results. It is always a good idea to test your code with
different inputs to ensure that it works as expected

Nested Statements

 Nested statements involve including one statement within another

statement. This can be done with both selection (if/else) and iteration
(for/while) statements
 In programming languages like Python, Java, and Visual Basic, nested
statements are often indicated by indenting the inner statement(s)
relative to the outer statement(s)

Exam Tip
You will not be required to write more than three levels of nested statements

Selection

 Nested selection is an if statement inside an if statement

 If the first if statement is true, it will run the if statement which is
nested inside
 Otherwise, it will skip to the else if or else which is part of that if
statement

Pseudocode example:

if a > b then
 if b > c then
output “a is the largest”
else
output “c is the largest”
else
if a > c then
output “b is the largest”
else
output “c is the largest”
Python example:

if a > b:
if b > c:
print("a is the largest")
else:
print("c is the largest")
else:
if a > c:
print("b is the largest")
else:
print("c is the largest")

Exam Tip
Indentation is key so make sure it's clear in your answer which if statement
line is part of which. It's more clear when you use end if in the appropriate
places, too.

Iteration
Nested iteration refers to a loop inside another loop.

Pseudocode example:

FOR i ← 1 TO 10
FOR j ← 1 TO 5
OUTPUT "i = ", i, " j = ", j
END FOR
END FOR

Python example:

for i in range(1, 11):

for j in range(1, 6):
print("i = ", i, " j = ", j)
Exam Tip

 Nested iteration is useful when we need to perform a task for a specific

range of values
 It is important to keep track of the number of nested statements
 It is important to keep nested statements organized and clear. Use
consistent indentation and avoid going too many levels deep, as this
can make the code difficult to read and understand

Subroutines
Procedures and functions are types of subroutines. They are a sequence of
instructions that perform a specific task or set of tasks

 Subroutines are often used to simplify a program by breaking it into

smaller, more manageable parts
 Subroutines can be used to avoid duplicating code and can be reused
throughout a program
 Subroutines can be used to improve the readability and maintainability
of code
 Subroutines can be used to perform calculations, to retrieve data, or to
make decisions based on input.
 Parameters are values that are passed into a subroutine
 Parameters can be used to customise the behaviour of a subroutine
 Subroutines can have multiple parameters
 Parameters can be of different types
 Parameters can have default values, which are used if no value is
passed in
 Parameters can be passed by value or by reference
o When a parameter is passed by value, a copy of the parameter is
made and used within the subroutine
o When a parameter is passed by reference, the original parameter
is used within the subroutine, and any changes made to the
parameter will be reflected outside of the subroutine

What's the difference between a procedure and function?

Functions return a value whereas a procedure does not

Procedures

 Procedures are defined using the PROCEDURE keyword in pseudocode,

def keyword in Python, and Sub keyword in Visual Basic and Java
 Procedures can be called from other parts of the program using their
name

Pseudocode example:
PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)
area ← length * width
OUTPUT "The area is " + area
END PROCEDURE
To call the procedure you would use the following pseudocode:

calculate_area(5,3)

Python example:

def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width
print("The area is ", area)
calculate_area(5,3)

Functions

 Functions are defined using the FUNCTION keyword in pseudocode, def

keyword in Python, and Function keyword in Visual Basic and Java
 Functions return a value using the RETURN keyword in pseudocode,
return statement in Python, and function name in Visual Basic and Java
 Functions can be called from other parts of the program using their
name, and their return value can be stored in a variable

Pseudocode example:

PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width
RETURN area
END PROCEDURE
To output the value returned from the function you would use the following
pseudocode:

OUTPUT(calculate_area(5,3))

Python example:

def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width
return area
print(calculate_area(5,3))
Local & Global Variables

 A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a subroutine and can only be
accessed from within that subroutine
 A global variable is a variable that is declared outside of a subroutine and can be
accessed from anywhere in the program
 Global variables can be used to pass data between different subroutine
 Overuse of global variables can make a program difficult to understand and debug and is
therefore discouraged as it’s considered bad practice

Pseudocode example:

global total_score
FUNCTION calculate_average(num1: INTEGER, num2: INTEGER)
average ← (num1 + num2) / 2
RETURN average
END FUNCTION
total_score ← 0
PROCEDURE add_score(score: INTEGER)
total_score ← total_score + score
END PROCEDURE
Python example:

def calculate_average(num1, num2):

average = (num1 + num2) / 2
return average
total_score = 0
def add_score(score):
global total_score
total_score = total_score + score

Library Routines
Library routines are pre-written code that we can include in our programs to
perform specific tasks.

 Using library routines saves us time by not having to write code from
scratch
 Library routines are also tested and proven to work, so we don't have
to worry about errors as much
 Some commonly used library routines include:
o Input/output routines
o Maths routines
 Libraries can be included in our programs by importing them
 The specific syntax for importing a library may vary depending on the
programming language being used
  It is important to check the documentation for a library to understand
its usage and available functions

Maths routines

 MOD: a function that returns the remainder when one number is

divided by another number

o Pseudocode example: x MOD y
o Python example: x % y
 DIV: a function that returns the quotient when one number is divided
by another number
o Pseudocode example: x DIV y
o Python example: x // y
 ROUND: a function that rounds a number to a specified number of
decimal places
o Pseudocode example: ROUND(x, n)
o Python example: round(x, n)
 RANDOM: a function that generates a random number between x and
n
o Pseudocode example: RANDOM(x,n)
o Python example: random.randint(x,n)

Exam Tip
Remember to import or include the appropriate library before using the
routines in your code

Maintaining Programs
Why is it important to create a maintainable program?

 Improve program quality:

o A maintainable program is easier to understand and modify,

which leads to fewer bugs and better program quality
 Reduce development time and costs:
o A maintainable program requires less time and effort to modify,
which reduces development time and costs
 Enables collaboration:
o A maintainable program makes it easier for multiple developers
to work together on the same project, as it's easier to
understand and modify
 Increase program lifespan:
o A maintainable program is more likely to be updated and
maintained over time, which increases its lifespan and
usefulness
  Adapt to changing requirements:
o A maintainable program is easier to modify to adapt to changing
requirements or new features

How do you create a well maintained program?

 Use meaningful identifiers:

o Identifiers are names given to variables, constants, arrays,
procedures and functions
o Use descriptive and meaningful identifiers to make your code
easier to understand and maintain
o Avoid using single letters or abbreviations that may not be clear
to others
 Use the commenting feature provided by the programming language:
o Comments are used to add descriptions to the code that help
readers understand what the code is doing
o Use comments to explain the purpose of variables, constants,
procedures, functions and any other parts of the code that may
not be immediately clear
o Use comments to document any assumptions or limitations of
the code
 Use procedures and functions:
o Procedures and functions are reusable blocks of code that
perform specific tasks
o Using procedures and functions allows you to modularise your
code and make it easier to understand, debug and maintain
o Procedures and functions should have descriptive names that
clearly indicate what they do
 Relevant and appropriate commenting of syntax:
o Commenting of syntax is used to explain the purpose of
individual lines or blocks of code within the program
o Use commenting on syntax to describe complex algorithms, or to
provide additional information on the purpose or behaviour of
code

1D Arrays

 A one-dimensional (1D) array is a collection of items of the same data

type, stored in a contiguous block of memory
 To declare an array in pseudocode, use the syntax: DECLARE
arrayName[n] OF dataType
 To declare an array in Python, use the syntax: array_name = [0] * n
 To access elements in a 1D array, use the index, which can start at 0
or 1
2D Arrays

 A two-dimensional (2D) array is an array of arrays, creating a grid-like

structure
 Declare a 2D array in pseudocode using the syntax: DECLARE
arrayName[n][m] OF dataType
 In Python, use the syntax: array_name = [[0] * m for _ in
range(n)]
 To access elements in a 2D array, use two indices: the row index and
the column index
 The syntax for accessing elements is similar across languages, using
square brackets [i] for 1D arrays and [i][j] for 2D arrays

Using Arrays

 Arrays are used to store and manage multiple values of the same data
type efficiently
 They can be used for tasks such as storing student scores, calculating
averages, and managing inventory data

Using variables in arrays

 Variables can be used as indexes in arrays to access and modify

elements dynamically
 This is useful when iterating through the array using loops or
performing calculations based on user input

What is the first index value?

 The first index can be either 0 or 1, depending on the programming

language and personal preference
 Most programming languages, such as Python, Java, and Visual Basic,
use 0 as the first index

Exam Tip
In pseudocode, the first index can be either 0 or 1, so it is crucial to read the
question to find out

Pseudocode example:

DECLARE scores[5] OF INTEGER

FOR i FROM 0 TO 4
INPUT scores[i]
ENDFOR
Python example:
scores = [0] * 5
for i in range(5):
scores[i] = int(input())

Worked Example
1. Declare an array to store customer names [1]

CustomerNames[1:30] [1 mark]

2. Declare the arrays to store each customer's date of birth, telephone

number, email address and balance [2]

CustomerDOB[1:30]
CustomerTelNo[1:30]
CustomerEmail[1:30] [1 mark]
CustomerBalance[1:30] [1 mark]

Using Iteration

 Loops can be used to write values into arrays, iterating through each
element and assigning a value
 Iteration can also be used to read values from arrays, traversing
through each element and performing operations or outputting the
value
 Nested iteration is useful for working with multi-dimensional arrays,
such as 2D arrays, where you need to iterate through rows and
columns

Pseudocode example:

DECLARE scores[3][3] OF INTEGER

FOR i FROM 0 TO 2
FOR j FROM 0 TO 2
INPUT scores[i][j]
ENDFOR
ENDFOR

FOR i FROM 0 TO 2
FOR j FROM 0 TO 2
OUTPUT scores[i][j]
ENDFOR
ENDFOR

Python example:
scores = [[0] * 3 for _ in range(3)]
for i in range(3):
for j in range(3):
scores[i][j] = int(input())

for i in range(3):
for j in range(3):
print(scores[i][j])

Exam Tip
Keep track of your loop variables to avoid confusion and errors - it's best to
give these clear names (row and column) rather than I and j

Worked Example
Write the pseudocode to output the contents of the
arrays Balance[ ] and Email [ ] along with suitable messages [3]

Count ← 0
REPEAT
PRINT "Customer: ", Count, " Balance: ", Balance[Count], "
Email: ",Email[Count] [3 marks]
Count ← Count + 1
UNTIL Count = 30 [1 mark]

You could also answer with a WHILE or FOR loop