CELL THEORY

What are cells?

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and
biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often
called the "building blocks of life".

The First Cells

Geological evidence suggests that cells similar to modern bacteria were common 3.8
billion years ago.
However the stew of organic molecules suggested by Miller and Urey is a long way from
a living cell
So how could the first cells on Earth have originated?
Sydney Fox (1950's) and others have done extensive research on the structures that may
have given rise to the first cells.

Objectives

1. To describe the different characteristics of the cell

2. To identify the different parts of the cells along with the organelles and their functions
3. To explain the historical development of the cell theory and name the contributors to
the theory

ABOUT THE CELL

Cells are measured in micrometers.
Cells vary in size and shape.
Shape is determined by function.
Two types of cells:
-Sex cells.
-Somatic (body) cells.

ABOUT THE CELL

Some Random Cell Facts
The average auman being is composed plaround, 100 Trillion individual cells!!!
It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of a dot on the letter

Historical Development of the Cell Theory

1595 Zacharias Jensen

Jensen creates the first compound microscope.
1655 Robert Hooke- using a microscope that he devised, viewed the cell walls of cork for
the first time. He coined the term 'cell' still used in biology today
1670 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek- van Leeuwenhoek observes the first living cells in pond
water using lenses that he created for hismicroscope.
1833 Robert Brown- Brown discovers the nucleus in plant cells and suggests its
importance in cell creation.
1838 Matthias Jakob Schleiden-Schleiden proposes that all plant tissues are composed
of cells.
1839 Theodor Schwann- Schwann concludes that not just plant tissue, but animal
tissues, as well, are composed of one or more cells. He also states that the cell is the
basic unit for all organisms.
1845 Carl Heinrich Braun- Braun restates the second part of the cell theory proposing
that cells are the basic unit of life.
1855 Rudolf Virchow- Virchow adds the third part to the cell theory stating that cells only
come from other living cells.

The Cell Theory

The development and refinement of magnifying lenses and light microscopes made the
observation and description of microscopic organisms and living cells possible.
•Late 1500's Late 1500's
Hans and Zacharias Janssen
•Dutch lens grinders,father and son produced first compound microscope (2 lenses)

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)English natural philosopher

• The first person too see a cell under
a microscope The first to describe the unit life to be called a cell
• He Invented the compound microscope
By the help of microscopes there is nothing so amal, as to escape our inquiry, hance there is
new visible world discovered to the understanding
He became a scientist in the year 1655 when he was only 20 years old When Robert Hooke
was 27 years old he was appointed Curator of Experiments
Robert Hooke used an early microscope (a) to see cells in thin slices of cork. His drawings of
what he saw (b) indicate that he had dearly observed the remains of cork cells (300)
Anton van Leeuwenhoek In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch microscope maker), was first to view
living cells (organisms). Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water
and scrapings from his teeth
Cell Theory

Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881)German botanist

Trained as a lawyer, he soon left the profession to study natural science. He made the
statement that plant cells were made of living cells in 1838.
He and Theodor Schwann developed a large part of cell theory, which states that all living
organisms are composed of cells or substances made by cells.

Theodor Schwann
• 1810-1882• Theorized that animals develop from cells that divide into new cells.
• Therefore all animals are built from dividing cells, just like plants.
Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph Virchow observed, under the microscope,
cells dividing
He reasoned that all cells come from other pre- existing cells by cell division

The Cell Theory Complete

The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were now. complete.
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39)
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things, (Schleiden & Schwann) (1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells. (Virchow) (1858)

The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:

a.Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
b. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
c. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.

Historical Development of the Cell Theory

Timeline of Cellular Discovery

Robert Hooke choerves cells of a ok tree though a microscope bactria

Major events in cell biology & imaging

Kach uses aniline dyes to iderelly bacteria causing THB and cholera
mitochondriain muide 1857 1862mission ale1965Ruska build 1900Loowenhoek dicowers
protozoa.
Sem Golgi starim cells 1 commercial Schwith sher nitrate,propere the Call Theory discovering
the Colgi apparatus theory.

The idea of the cell as the basic unit of life is a collaborated effort from the several scientists
who worked through time to come up with one common knowledge about it. The development of
the microscope supported so much to the understanding of the cell..

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) is an English physicist. He contributed to the discovery of cells while
looking at a thin slice of cork using only a very crude microscope. In 1665, he published his
experiment on the cell in his publication called "Micrographia". He thought that cells only exist in
plants and fungi. Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after
Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify
objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. However, despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van
Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of single-celled organism) and
sperm, which he collectively termed "animalcules.

Figure 2.2 Leeuwenhoek's animalcules.

Th Leeuwenl than those used in the 1600s by Antony van crafting lenses. In the 1670s, van
Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope
construction, and staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside
cells.
Figure 2.3: Structure of an Animal Cell: The cell is the basic unit of life and the study of the cell
led to the development of the cell theory.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory. The unified cell theory states that: all living things
are composed of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from
existing cells. Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory.
Figure 2.4: Structure of an Fled to the development of the cell theory.
...f life and the study of the cell
Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination,
butspontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven. Rudolf Virchow
famously stated "Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells." The parts
of the theory that did nothave to do with the origin of cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny
and are widely agreed upon by the scientific community today.

What are Microscopes?

Microscopes are instruments that are used in science laboratories to visualize very minute
objects, such as cells and microorganisms, giving a contrasting image that is magnified.

Microscopes are made up of lenses for magnification, each with its own magnification powers.
Depending on the type of lens, it will magnify the specimen according to its focal strength.

Their ability to function is because they have been constructed with special components that
enable them to achieve high magnification levels. They can view very small specimens and
distinguish their structural differences, for example, the view of animal and plant cells viewing
microscopic bacterial cells.

PARTS OF MICROSCOPE.
Structural parts of a microscope and
their functions
1.Head – The head is a cylindrical metallic tube that holds the eyepiece lens at one end and
connects to the nose piece at other end. It is also called a body tube or eyepiece tube. It
connects the eyepiece lens to the objective lens. The light coming from objectives will bend
inside this tube. In binocular microscopes, they are adjustable so that the viewer can adjust the
eyepiece for maximum visualization.
2.Arm – This is the part connecting the base to the head and the eyepiece tube to the base of
the microscope. It supports the head of the microscope and is also used when carrying the
microscope. Some high-quality microscopes have an articulated arm with more than one joint,
allowing more movement of the microscopic head for better viewing.
3.Base – The base is the lowermost part of the microscope that supports the entire microscope
structure. It provides stability for the microscope. Illuminators, light switches, and electrical
wiring systems are fitted in the base.

Optical parts of a microscope and their functions

The optical parts of the microscope are used to view, magnify, and produce an image from a
specimen placed on a slide.

1.Eyepiece – The eyepiece (ocular Lens) is closest to the viewer’s eye. They are located at the
top of the microscope. This part is used to look at the specimen. These lenses come in different
magnification powers from 5X to 30X, but the most common ocular lenses are of 10X or 15X
magnification. They magnify the image for the second time.
2.Eyepiece tube – It’s the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the objective lens.
In some microscopes, such as the binoculars, the eyepiece tube is flexible and can be rotated
for maximum visualization for variance in distance. For monocular microscopes, they are none
flexible.
3.Diopter Adjustment – Diopter Adjustment is a control knob present only in the binocular
microscope that is used to change focus on one eyepiece. It is used to correct any difference in
vision and compensate for the differences in vision between the viewer’s two eyes.
4.Nose piece – A nose piece is a movable circular structure that houses all the objective lenses.
It is also called the revolving turret. It is connected to the body tube and lies just above the
stage. It can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise to increase or decrease the
magnification. The change in magnification results due to a change in the objective lens.
5.Objective lenses – The objective lens is the lens that is closest to the specimen. They are
fitted on the nosepiece. A standard microscope has 3 to 4 objective lenses of different
magnifying powers: 4X, 10X, 40X, and 100X. The objective lenses first receive the light
transmitted from the specimen and magnify the image for the first time. Objective lenses are
color-coded and are of different sizes. Size and color depend on the power of the lens. The
smallest lens is of the lowest power, and gradually, the longest will be of the highest power. The
high power lenses i.e. 40X and 100X, are retractable, i.e., their end can be pushed inward. In
most optical microscopes, objective lenses with 100X or more magnification are of oil immersion
type.
6.The Adjustment knobs – Adjustment Knobs are the control knobs used to focus the
microscope on the specimen. These knobs are of two types;
a. Fine Adjustment Knob: Fine Adjustment Knob is used for fine adjustment. It is a smaller knob
and is used to move the stage up or down very slowly. The stage covers a very small distance
on each rotation of the fine adjustment knob. It is used to sharpen the image. It is mostly used
while viewing under high power.
b. Coarse Adjustment Knob: Coarse Adjustment Knob is used for focusing the image under low
power magnification. It is a larger knob and is used to move the stage up or down very rapidly.
The stage is raised or lowered rapidly with the help of a coarse adjustment knob.
7.Stage – This is the section in which the specimen is placed for viewing. They have stage clips
that hold the specimen slides in place. The most common stage is the mechanical stage, which
allows the control of the slides by moving the slides using the mechanical knobs on the stage
instead of moving them manually.
8.Stage Control Knobs – Stage Control Knobs are the control knobs used to move the stage
mechanically. There are two knobs; one for moving left and right and the other for moving
forward and backward. This will move the slide in the field of vision.
9.Aperture – This is a hole in the microscope stage through which the transmitted light from the
source reaches the stage.
10.Microscopic illuminator – A microscopic illuminator is a light source. In some compound
microscopes, a mirror, which reflects the light from an external source to the sample, is used. In
other optical microscopes, different electric bulbs of low voltages are used as a constant light
source. Commonly used illuminators are tungsten-halogen lamps, 75-150W Xenon lamps,
tin-halide lamps, mercury vapor lamps, etc. The selection of types of bulbs is based on the
requirement of intensity and wavelength for illumination.
11.Diaphragm – It’s also known as the iris. It is found under the stage of the microscope, and its
primary role is to control the amount of light that reaches the specimen. It’s an adjustable
apparatus, hence controlling the light intensity and the size of the beam of light that gets to the
specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the diaphragm comes attached with an Abbe
condenser, and combined, they are able to control the light focus and light intensity that reaches
the specimen.

Cell Structure
Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early biologists saw cells
as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today's biologists
know that cells are infinitely more complex than this.There are many different types, sizes, and
shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the concept of a "generalized cell" is
introduced. It includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell
membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate
arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures
called organelles.

Cell membrane
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane separates
the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the cell, intracellular. It
maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All
materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the
needed exchange.
The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell membrane
provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites,
function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.
Nucleus and Nucleolus
The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of
the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic
material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and
is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as
the basic structure of that cell.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It
provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions
for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the
cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short
distances.
Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. Each
type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the function of the cell. Examples
of cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, and lysosomes.

Different organelles of the cell

Ribosomes
-small, dense structures that help build proteins based on the information given by the mRNA
-area for proteins synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Produces lipids ex. Used by the cell membrane
-continuous membrane system that forms a series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells and serves multiple functions -important particularly in the synthesis, folding,
modification, and transport of proteins.
Golgi apparatus
-also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi
an organelle found in most eukaryotic cellspart of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm it
packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to
their destination.
lysosome
-a membrane-bound cellorganelle that contains digestive enzymes
-are involved with various cell processes
-they break down excess or worn-out cell parts
-they may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.
-graveyard areas
Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cellsis the "powerhouse of the cell"is responsible for cellular respiration and
production of(most) ATP in the cell.energy producing site for the cell.

Cilia and flagella

-projections from the cell
-made up of microtubules
-covered by an extension of the plasma membrane
-motile and designed either to move the cell itself or to move substances over or around the cell.

Cell wall
-a structural layer surrounding
can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid some types of cells, just outside the cell membrane
- provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering
mechanism

Chloroplasts
organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis Chloroplasts
absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to produce food for
the plant

Vacuoles

storage bubbles found in cells.they are found in both animal and plant cells but are much larger
in plant cells might store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might need to survive can even
store waste products so the rest of the cell is protected from contamination.

CELL MODIFICATION
Living organisms can be made of a single cell, such as bacteria and protists, or they can be
multicellular, like plants, animals, and fungi. Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are able to
perform all life functions within one single cell. They can transport molecules, metabolize
nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell.
Multicellular organisms need many different types of cells to carry out the same life processes.
Each of these special types of cells has a different structure that helps it perform a specific
function. Humans have many different types of cells with different jobs, such as blood cells that
carry oxygen and nerve cells that transmit signals to all parts of the body. Cell differentiation is
the process by which cells become specialized in order to perform different functions.
Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a process that occurs after cell
division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can perform their
function efficiently and effectively.
Multicellular organisms begin as just one single cell-a fertilized egg. Growing from one single
cell to trillions of specialized cells that perform different functions is a process that happens with
the regulation of DNA and RNA.

1.Apical (Surface or luminal) modifications: It is specialized to carry out functions that occur at
these interfaces, including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal contents.

Cilia: are membrane-covered extensions of the entire apical surface. They beat in waves, often
moving a surface coat of mucus and trapped materials. Ciliated epithelia include ciliated
pseudostratified columnar (respiratory) epithelium and the ciliated simple columnar epithelium of
the oviducts.
Flagella: are also concerned with movement. Spermatozoa, derived from seminiferous epithelia,
are the only flagellated human cells.
Microvilli (brush border or striated border): are plasma membrane-covered extensions of the cell
surface. Their cores are composed of parallel actin microfilaments; these are anchored in a
dense mat of filaments in the apical cytoplasm called the terminal web. By interacting with
cytoplasmic myosin, the microfilaments can contract, shortening the microvilli. The apical
surface of absorptive cells is usually covered with microvilli, which greatly increase the apical
surface area when extended. Microvillus-covered epithelia, said to exhibit a striated border, or
brush border, include the absorptive simple columnar epithelium lining the small intestines and
the absorptive simple cuboidal epithelium lining the proximal tubules of the kidney.

Stereocilia: are not true cilia but very long microvilli. They are found in the male reproductive
tract (epididymis. ductus deferens) where they have an absorptive function, and in the internal
ear (hair cells of the maculae and organ of Corti). where they have a sensory function.

BASAL MODIFICATION

Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell

➤ Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as the basal
lamina that underlie epithelia
➤ Primarily composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins

Lateral Modification

A type of cell modification that is found on the lateral or side surface of the cell

1. Gap Junction
They are channels between neighboring cells that allow for the transport of ions, water, and
other substances.
In vertebrates, gap junctions develop when a set of six membrane proteins called connexins
form an elongated, donut-like structure called a connexon.
2.Tight junctions create a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells. The purpose of
tight junctions is to keep liquid from escaping between cells, allowing a layer of cells to act as an
impermeable barrier

3.Adherens Junction
Adherens Junctions.It anchors junction on the lateral surface of the cell
Actin and Cadherin Filaments are attached to each of the cells to form the adhesion.

BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates- are one of the three macronutrients, along with proteins and fats, that are
essential for human health. They are the body's primary source of energy and are found in a
wide variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and dairy products.
Lipids, also known as fats, are a diverse group of organic compounds that are essential for
human health. They are characterized by their insolubility in water, meaning they don't mix with
water. Here's
Protiens- are complex organic molecules that are essential for life. They are composed of
amino acids, which are linked together in long chains. These chains fold into specific
three-dimensional structures that determine the protein's function.
Nudeic acids Nucleic acids are large biopolymers, essential for all known forms of life. They are
composed of monomers called nucleotides, which are made up of three components: a
nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (pentose), and a phosphate group. And refer to the
genetic information carried from the parent to offspring.

The importance of carbohydrates are because the brain relies heavily on glucose for energy.
Carbohydrates are crucial for cognitive function, memory, and learning. For the function Muscles
use carbohydrates for energy during exercise. Carbohydrate loading, a strategy of eating
high-carbohydrate meals before endurance events.

Importance of lipids are

- Energy Storage: Lipids are the body's most efficient form of energy storage. They provide
more than twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates.
, hormone production, and more. Here's a detailed look at their importance and functions.
- Cell Structure: Lipids are major components of cell membranes, forming a barrier that
separates the cell's interior from its external environment. And the functions are
- Energy Production: When needed, our bodies break down stored fat into fatty acids, which
then are used to produce energy. This process is particularly important during prolonged periods
of fasting or exercise.
- Insulation and Protection: Fat deposits under the skin act as insulation, helping to regulate
body temperature and protect organs from injury.

Importance of proteins
• Building Blocks of Life: Proteins are the building blocks of cells, tissues, and organs. They
provide structure and support, helping to maintain the integrity of our bodies.
• Essential for Growth and Development: Proteins are crucial for growth and development,
particularly during childhood and adolescence. They are essential for build and maintaining
muscle mass, bo.. and other tissues
Functions:
• Structural Support: Proteins provide structural support for cells, tissues, and organs. For
example:
• Collagen: Provides strength and elasticity to skin, tendons, bones, and cartilage.
• Keratin: Forms the structural components of hair, skin, and nails.
• Transport: Some proteins transport substances throughout the body.
Examples include:
• Hemoglobin: Carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
• Lipoproteins: Transport fats and cholesterol throughout the body.
• Storage: Proteins can store nutrients, such as iron in ferritin.

Importance of nucleic acid

DNA serves as the genetic blueprint of all living organisms. It contains the instructions for
building and maintaining an organism, dictating everything from eye color to susceptibility to
certain diseases.
Functions: Stores genetic information: DNA acts as a long-term storage medium for genetic
instructions. It is organized into chromosomes and housed within the nucleus of cells.
:Replication: DNA can replicate itself, ensuring that each new cell receives a complete set of
genetic instructions. This process is essential for cell division.