Long Test Reviewer

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
Smaller size has higher surface area to volume
ratio
I. Cell Theory
Larger surface area allows more areas exposed for
easier transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste
products.
Characteristics of Life
General Functions of the Cell
1. Order
1. Homeostasis
2. Evolutionary adaptation
➢ An organism’s ability to keep a constant
3. Regulation/Homeostasis
internal state is called homeostasis.
4. Energy Processing/Metabolism
2. Acquisition and Utilization of Energy
5. Growth and Development
➢ Energy is stored in the bonds present in
6. Response to the environment food molecules, and it will be converted by
the cells into more usable forms.
7. Reproduction
➢ Energy is needed by various cells to
Is virus a living organism? perform their functions.
Viruses are non-living organisms because they do 3. Responsiveness
not grow or reproduce by themselves. This makes
them non-living. However, when a virus enters a ➢ A cell must first be able to determine the
living cell of an organism, it obtains energy from the changes that have taken place before
host cell and starts reproducing. deciding the necessary responses that will
ultimately result in the maintenance of
Size of the cell as compared to other objects normal internal conditions.
1. Atom 4. Protection and Support
2. Lipids ➢ Immune cells impart protection against
pathogens and other foreign bodies that
3. Protein
may enter the general circulation.
4. Flu Virus
History of the Development of Cell Theory
5. Mitochondria and Bacteria
1. Zacharias Janssen (1585 - 1632)
6. Animal Cell and Plant Cell
➢ Invented the first primitive microscope.
7. Human Egg
2. Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703)
8. Frog Egg
➢ Observed cork cells under a microscope
9. Chicken Egg and came up with the term "cells."

10. Ostrich Egg 3. Francesco Redi (1626 - 1697)

11. Adult Female ➢ Disproved the spontaneous generation

theory. (Meat in a cork-sealed container)

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4. Louis Pasteur ➢ It comprises the following:

➢ Disproved the spontaneous generation ○ Glycolipids

theory. (Bacteria presence)
○ Glycoproteins
5. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723)
○ Phospholipids
➢ Observed microorganisms by using his
own practical microscope. ○ Cholesterol

6. Matthias Schleiden (1804 - 1881) ○ Membrane proteins

➢ Proposed that all plants are composed of ➢ Each of the phospholipids consists of the
cells. following:

7. Theodor Schwann (1810 - 1882) ○ Head Region

➢ Proposed that all animals are composed ➢ Phosphate Group

of cells. ➢ Hydrophilic
8. Rudolf Virchow (1821 - 1902) ○ Tail Region
➢ Proposed that all cells come from ➢ Two Fatty Acid Chains
pre-existing cells.
➢ Hydrophobic
3 Principles of the Cell Theory
➢ Phospholipids make up the phospholipid
1. Every living organism consists of one or more bilayer.
cells. (Theodor Schwann)
○ Phosphate heads face the
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life. cytoplasm and the cell’s exterior.
(Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann)
○ Fatty acid tails are sandwiched.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells. (Rudolf
Virchow) ➢ The fluid mosaic model describes the
membrane structure.
Examples Atypical Cells
○ Mosaic of different molecules such
1. Striated Muscle Fibres as proteins, sugars, and cholesterol.
2. Aseptate Fungal Hyphae ○ Fluidity due to its natural viscosity.
3. Giant Alga ➢ Membrane fluidity is determined by:

○ The “kinks” in the fatty acid tails of

the phospholipids.
II. Major Parts of the Cell
○ The cholesterol molecules which act
as regulators of fluidity.
Plasma Membrane

1. Structure

➢ The plasma membrane is the cell’s

primary barrier.

➢ Cell membrane or plasma membrane

separates the cytoplasm from the external
environment.

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2. Roles of Lipid Bilayer 2. Microtubules

➢ Selective permeability is an important ➢ These consist of helically arranged

property of the lipid bilayer, in which it only globular proteins called tubulin.
allows certain molecules to move into and
out of the cell. ➢ It radiates from the centrosomes.

➢ Permeable Molecules: ➢ Forms spindle fibers that move

chromosomes.

➢ In animal cells, microtubules grow out

from a centrosome, a region that is often
located near the nucleus.

➢ These microtubules function as

compression-resisting girders of the
➢ Impermeable Molecules: cytoskeleton. Within the centrosome is a
pair of centrioles, each composed of nine
sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a
ring.

➢ Motion of flagella. A flagellum usually

undulates, its snakelike motion driving a
cell in the same direction as the axis of
3. Roles of Membrane Proteins the flagellum.

➢ Channel Proteins ➢ Motion of cilia. Cilia have a

back-and-forth motion. The rapid power
○ Passageway of certain molecules. stroke moves the cell in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of the cilium.
➢ Receptor Proteins
3. Microfilaments
○ Change conformation to transport
molecules. ➢ They consist of long fibers of actin
protein, making them the thinnest
➢ Carrier Proteins cytoskeleton.
○ Detect invading pathogens. ➢ They help facilitate cell and organelle
movement.
➢ Cell Recognition Proteins
➢ They can help change the shape of the
○ Binding of molecules to trigger
cell.
responses.
➢ The surface area of this
Cytoskeleton
nutrient-absorbing intestinal cell is
1. Structure and Function increased by its many microvilli, cellular
extensions reinforced by bundles of
➢ This consists of a network of protein fibers microfilaments.
that gives the cell its structural framework.
➢ These actin filaments are anchored to a
➢ Responsible for the movement of network of intermediate filaments.
organelles, macromolecules, and
chromosomes. 4. Intermediate Filaments

➢ Helps maintain cell shape.

➢ Anchors the nucleus.

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Cytoplasm III. Subcellular Organelles
1. Composition

➢ It is composed of the cytosol, a semifluid Genetic control of the cell

solution that consists of water and
inorganic and organic molecules. 1. Nucleus

Cell Wall ➢ Structure

1. Function ○ Contains most of the genes in the

eukaryotic cell.
➢ A rigid structure that surrounds the cell
membrane. ○ This is a prominent, usually oval
structure in a eukaryotic cell.
➢ It helps maintain the shape of cells and
prevent them from bursting. ○ It is located in almost the center of
the cell.
2. Composition
➢ Parts
➢ Most bacteria have cell wall made up of
peptidoglycan. ○ Nucleoplasm is the semifluid matrix.

➢ The cell wall in some fungi consists of ○ Nuclear envelope separates the
chitin. nucleus from the cytoplasm.

➢ In plant cells, the cell wall consists of ○ Nuclear pores permit the passage of
mesh-like cellulose fibers. ribosomal subunits and mRNA out of
the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
3. Structure
➢ Lined by the nuclear lamina, a netlike
➢ Young plant cell first secretes a the array of protein filaments (in animal cells,
primary cell wall. called intermediate filaments) that
maintains the shape of the nucleus.
➢ Between primary walls of adjacent cells is
the middle lamella, a thin layer rich in ➢ Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized
sticky polysaccharides called pectins, into discrete units called chromosomes,
which glues adjacent cells together. structures that carry the genetic
information.
➢ When the cell matures and stops growing,
it strengthens its wall. The secondary ➢ The complex of DNA and proteins making
wall, often deposited in several laminated up chromosomes is called chromatin.
layers, has a strong and durable matrix
that affords the cell protection and ➢ Nucleolus (plural, nucleoli), where a type
support. of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is
synthesized, proteins imported from the
cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into
large and small subunits of ribosomes.

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2. Ribosomes ➢ Structure

➢ Function ○ Consists of stacks of associated,

flattened sacs, or cisternae. A Golgi
○ Organelles that use instructions from stack receives and dispatches
the nucleus, written in mRNA, to build transport vesicles and the products
proteins. they contain.
○ Complexes made of rRNAs and 3. Lysosomes
proteins, are the cellular components
that carry out protein synthesis. ➢ A membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
that many eukaryotic cells use to digest
➢ Free and Bound Ribosomes (hydrolyze) macromolecules.
○ Free ribosomes are found in the ➢ Function
cytosol.
○ Phagocytosis (from the Greek
○ Bound ribosomes are attached to phagein, to eat, and kytos, vessel,
the outside of the endoplasmic referring here to the cell). Lysosomes
reticulum or nuclear envelope. digest (hydrolyze) materials taken
The Endomembrane System into the cell.

1. Endoplasmic reticulum ○ Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic

enzymes to recycle the cell’s own
➢ An extensive network of membranes, organic material, a process called
(endoplasmic means “within the autophagy. During autophagy, a
cytoplasm,” and reticulum is Latin for “little damaged organelle or small amount
net.”). of cytosol becomes surrounded by a
double membrane (of unknown
➢ Two Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum origin), and a lysosome fuses with the
outer membrane of this vesicle.
○ Rough ER have thousands of
ribosomes attached to the outer 4. Peroxisomes
surface which give this organelle a
“rough” appearance. Their main role ➢ A specialized metabolic compartment
is to produce proteins. bounded by a single membrane contain
enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms
○ Smooth ER does not have attached from various substrates and transfer them
ribosomes. This organelle produces to oxygen (O2), producing hydrogen
lipids. peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product (from
which the organelle derives its name).
2. Golgi Bodies
➢ Function
➢ Function
○ These contain enzymes and serve as
○ These serve functions similar to a
metabolic assistance to organelles
warehouse and processing center,
and specialize in synthesizing &
processing products of the ER.
breaking down lipids.

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5. Vacuoles

➢ Large vesicles derived from the Endosymbiotic Theory

endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. 1. Double membrane of mitochondria &
chloroplasts.
➢ Function
2. Large eukaryotic cell engulfed prokaryote.
○ These serve as a storage of water,
organic nutrients, variety of salts, 3. Mitochondria & chloroplasts have their own
sugar & some weak acids. genetic material.

➢ Solution inside the central vacuole, called 4. Result of invagination.

cell sap, is the plant cell’s main
repository of inorganic ions, including
potassium and chloride.
IV. Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Energy Houses

1. Mitochondrion Prokaryotic Cell

➢ This is known as the “powerhouse of the 1. Overview

cell”
➢ This can be compared to a studio-type of
➢ The sites of cellular respiration, the a condominium unit because of the lack
metabolic process that uses oxygen to of compartments.
drive the generation of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) by extracting energy ➢ Prokaryotic organisms are metabolically
from sugars, fats, and other fuels. diverse because they can utilize different
nutrients and energy sources and they
2. Chloroplasts can inhabit all types of environment on
Earth.
➢ This is unique to plant and algae cells.
➢ All bacteria that include the organisms of
➢ This organelle performs photosynthesis.
domains Archaea and Bacteria are
➢ A specialized member of a family of considered as prokaryotes.
closely related plant organelles called
Eukaryotic cells
plastids. One type of plastid, the
amyloplast, is a colorless organelle that 1. Overview
stores starch (amylose), particularly in
roots and tubers. Another is the ➢ This is comparable to a mansion which
chromoplast, which has pigments that has several rooms or compartments.
give fruits and flowers their orange and
➢ Domain Eukarya, which includes protists,
yellow hues.
fungi, plants, and animals, is eukaryotic.
Endosymbiont Theory
Distinguishing Features
According to this theory, the proposed ancestors of
1. Presence of nucleus
mitochondria were oxygenusing
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotes, while the
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
proposed ancestors of chloroplasts were
photosynthetic prokaryotes.
The genetic material The genetic material
is enclosed in the is in the nucleoid
nucleus. region.

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 chloroplast.
2. Cell wall and cell membrane
Eukaryotes have Prokaryotes have
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes 80S ribosomes 70S ribosomes.
(mitochondria, and
chloroplast contain
Present in most Present in almost all 70S ribosomes).
eukaryotic cells prokaryotic cells.
(these are not found
in animals and most
protists). Other Distinguishing Features

Cell wall is either Cell wall is made up 1. Shape of DNA

made up of of peptidoglycan.
cellulose as in Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
plants and chitin in
fungi.
More than one linear One covalent,
DNA with histone. closed, circular
The sterols that are They do not have DNA.
present in the cell sterols in the cell
membrane are membrane but have
cholesterol a sterol-like lipid
(animals), component called 2. Number of Chromosome
phytosterol (plants) hopanoid.
and ergosterol
(fungi). Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes have Most prokaryotes

more than one have only one
3. Endomembrane and other organelles chromosome so chromosome and
histones are an
It includes the rough and smooth endoplasmic essential in extrachromosomal
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, packaging DNA into DNA called a
endosome, and vacuole. nucleosomes and plasmid.
helping it to
condense into
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
chromatin.

Endomembrane Endomembrane
system is present. system is not
present. 3. Cell Size

4. Ribosome

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

Ribosomes can be All ribosomes are

found in the found in the
cytoplasm, outer cytoplasm.
nuclear membrane,
rough endoplasmic
reticulum,
mitochondrion, and

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4. Mode of Reproduction 6. Transcription and Translation

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

In eukaryotic cells, Most prokaryotic The transcription Transcription and

individual cells cells reproduce occurs in the translation can be
reproduce through through binary nucleus and the done at the same
mitosis and fission and some translation occurs in time in the
meiosis. reproduce through the cytoplasm. cytoplasm.
spores.
Post-transcriptional No
processing is done in post-transcriptional
eukaryotes to processing because
5. DNA Replication
remove introns and the DNA of
come up with the prokaryotes does not
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes final RNA. have a non-coding
part called introns.
Eukaryotic cells have DNA replication
multiple points of occurs in two
origin and use opposing
unidirectional directions at the V. Structures and Functions of Animal Cells
replication within the same time in the
nucleus. cytoplasm.
Hierarchy of Biological Organization
Telomerase is Prokaryotic cells do
involved in the not have telomeres 1. Atoms
replication of so telomerase is not
telomeres of the present and involved 2. Molecules
eukaryotic in their DNA
chromosome. replication. 3. Organelles

4. Cells
Eukaryotes only Prokaryotes
replicate their DNA continuously 5. Tissues
during the S-phase replicate their short
of interphase in cell DNA. 6. Organs
division.
7. Organ Systems

8. Organisms

9. Population

10. Community

11. Ecosystem

12. Biome

13. Biosphere

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 ed

Animal Tissues 2. Connective Tissue

These refer to groups of cells that are similar in ➢ The basic components of connective
structure and function. tissues vary according to their type.
1. Epithelial Tissue ➢ The different connective tissues vary with
the composition of their extracellular
➢ Epithelial tissue or epithelium is a type of
matrices and the types of cells they
animal tissue that forms the inner and
consist of.
outer lining of organs, the covering in
surfaces, and the primary glandular tissue
Connective Description Example Function
of the body. Tissues

Epithelial No. of Layers Example Function Bone or Osseous ● Layers of a ● Skull Protection and
Tissue and Shape of Tissue very hard support.
Cell matrix with
● Ribs
calcium salts
and collagen
fibers.
Simple ● One layer ● Air sacs or Site of diffusion
Squamous alveoli or exchange of ● Consists of
Epithelium substances; bone cells
● Flat
secretion. called lacunae.
● Capillary
walls
● Scale-like

Dense ● Matrix is ● Tendon Support.

Connective or predominantly
Simple Cuboidal ● One layer ● Glands and Absorption and
Dense Fibrous made up of
Epithelium their ducts secretion. ● Ligament
Tissue collagen fibers
● Cube-shaped and has lesser
● Ovaries cells.

● Lining of ● This is a
kidney fibroblast or a
tubules fiber-forming
cell.

Simple Columnar ● One layer ● Walls of the Absorption and

Epithelium gastrointestin secretion; Loose ● Matrix ● Areolar Protection,
al tract contains goblet Connective contains Tissue insulation,
● Elongated or
cells that secrete Tissue more cells storage, and
column-shap
mucus. and lesser support.
ed ● Body cavities ● Adipose
fibers than
Tissue or Fat
dense
Tissue
connective
tissue so it is
Pseudostratified ● One layer ● Lining of the Absorption and
softer. ● Reticular
Columnar respiratory secretion; usually
Connective
Epithelium tract ciliated; cells
● Elongated or Tissue
have unequal
column-shap
length and
ed
position of
nucleus forming
Blood ● Plasma ● Blood Transport of
a false layering
substance,
of cells.
immune
● Cellular ● Blood cells
response, and
components
blood clotting.
consist of
Stratified ● More than ● The Protection blood cells.
Squamous one layer epidermis against abrasion
Epithelium or constant ● With fibers
exposure to that are only
● Flat ● Lining of
friction. visible during
mouth
clotting
● Scale-like
because they
● Esophagus
are made up
of soluble
● Vagina proteins.

Stratified ● More than ● Sweat glands Protection and

Cuboidal one layer secretion.
Epithelium
● Salivary
● Cube-shaped glands

● Mammary
glands

Stratified ● More than ● Male urethra Protection and

Columnar one layer secretion.
Epithelium
● Ducts of
● Elongated or some glands
column-shap

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 a fairly permeable
membrane between the
cavities with
cerebrospinal fluid and
the tissues of CNS.

3. Muscular Tissue Oligodendrocytes CNS These are responsible

for the production of the
myelin sheath.
➢ The types of muscle tissues differ in their
general structure but more or less perform Satellite Cells PNS They surround the cell
the same function, i.e., to elicit movement. body of a neuron.

Muscular Location Description Muscle Control Schwann Cells PNS They surround all the
Tissues nerve fibers and
produce myelin sheath
similar to the
oligodendrocytes.
Skeletal Muscle Attached to the Long, cylindrical, Voluntary.
skeleton or striated (with
bones. visible stripes),
and
multinucleated
(with more than
one nucleus).
VI. Structures and Functions of Plant Cells
Smooth Muscle Found in the Made up of Involuntary.
walls of hollow nonstriated,
organs such as uninucleated,
intestines,
stomach,
and
spindle-shaped
Plant Tissues
bladder, blood (have pointed
vessels, and ends) cells.
uterus. 1. Meristematic Tissues

Cardiac Muscle Found in the ● Uninucleated Involuntary.

Found in the growing areas of plants.
heart (one nucleus)
and has
striations. ➢ Apical Meristem
● Has
intercalated ○ Apical meristems are responsible for
disks.
the primary growth of plants.

○ The blue parts represent the location

of the apical meristem.
4. Nervous Tissue

➢ Neuron, the basic unit of the nervous

system, consists of structures that can
conduct electrochemical signals as a form
of information.

➢ Neurons may be classified based from

their number of cellular processess.

Nervous Tissues Location Function

○ Apical meristems located at the root

Astrocytes CNS These are star-shaped tips (right) are responsible for the
cells that support and
control the chemical primary growth of plants. The
environment around the
neurons. These are the
most abundant glial cell
microscopic view of cells (left) shows
in the CNS. the apical meristems of Allium Cepa.

Microglial Cells CNS These are ovoid cells in

the CNS that can
transform into a
phagocytic macrophage
to clean neuronal debris
and wastes.

Ependymal Cells CNS These are ciliated cells

that line the central
cavities of the brain and
the spinal cord and form

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 plants and is protected by a
waxy cuticle.

➢ Lateral Meristem
● The cuticle prevents loss of
○ Responsible for the secondary water and invasion of
growth of plants. disease-causing
○ The red parts represent the location microorganisms.
of the lateral meristem. ● The epidermis in roots has root
hairs which help in increasing
the absorption capacity of roots.

● Trichomes are epidermal

outgrowths responsible for
protecting the plants from water
loss. It also reflects excess light.

● The lower and upper parts of

leaves are protected by the
○ Vascular cambium epidermis.
● Gives rise to secondary xylem ● Guard cells are specialized
and phloem. Secondary xylem structures that regulate the
gives rise to wood. opening and closing of stomata.
○ Cork Cambium ● Stomata are slit-like structures
on the lower epidermis of leaves
● Gives rise to cork cells which
which aids in the exchange of
replaces epidermis of plants
gases between plants and the
once they mature. Cork
environment.
cambium, cork, and phloem
make up the bark. ○ Simple Permanent

● Parenchyma cells are mostly

responsible for the synthesis and
storage of plant food.

● Collenchyma cells provides a

furnishing flexible support to
immature parts of plants.

2. Permanent Tissues ● Sclerenchyma cell has two

kinds, namely sclereids and
Composed of nondividing cells. fibers:
➢ Simple Permanent Tissues ★ Sclereids strengthen seed
coats and are responsible
Composed of one kind of cell.
for gritty-textured flesh of
○ Epidermis some fruits.

● It covers the whole body of ★ Fibers are used

nonwoody and young woody commercially as

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 components of making rope into the underlying tissues and blood
and flax fibers. vessels.

➢ They are found in the small intestines,

kidneys, egg cells, and white blood cells.

➢ Complex Permanent Tissues

2. Cilia and Stereocilia
Composed of two or more kinds of cells.
➢ In the respiratory tract, cilia prevent
○ Xylem mucus (from goblet cells), bacteria, and
● Helps in the transport of water dirt from entering the lungs.
throughout the plant’s body. ➢ Stereocilia in a frog’s inner ear allow it to
● Tracheids are thin and detect sounds from its environment.
elongated cells where water Through these, frogs have a mechanism
passes through. to detect and escape from potential
threats.
● Vessel Elements have
perforated plates that allow the 3. Flagella
transport of water through the ➢ Flagella are tail-like structures that
vessels. provide motility to cells.

4. Basal Infoldings and Hemidesmosomes

➢ Basal infoldings and hemidesmosomes

are both found at the basement
membrane of epithelial cells.

➢ Hemidesmosomes help the epithelial

tissue provide protection and structural
support to the underlying cells.
○ Phloem ➢ Basal infoldings are responsible for
increasing surface area and for ion and
● Composed of sieve-tube
fluid transport.
elements that help in the
transport of nutrients 5. Cell Junction
throughout the plant’s body.
➢ Cell junctions are found in epithelial cells
and are mainly responsible for connecting
adjacent cells.
VII. Structures and Functions of Modified
Cells ➢ Tight junctions prevent leakage of
substances.

➢ Adherens junctions connect adjacent

Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Animals
cells.
1. Microvilli
➢ Desmosomes connect adjacent cells.
➢ These increase the surface area for the
➢ Gap junctions serve as channels of ions,
absorption of nutrients and other
water and other essential substances.
essential substances from the gut cavity

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 ➢ Root hairs facilitate the absorption of
water from the substrate.

3. Mesophyll Cells

➢ Mesophyll layer is primarily responsible

for photosynthesis.

➢ It is made up of palisade cells and

spongy cells.
6. Blood Cells and Sex Cells
4. Xylem and Phloem
➢ Red blood cells are biconcave to aid in
➢ Xylem and phloem tissues consist of
the diffusion of gases from the air sacs
specialized cells that are responsible for
of the lungs and into the oxygen-deprived
transporting essential substances,
tissues of the rest of the body.
such as water, minerals, and food needed
○ The lack of nucleus in red blood cells by the plants.
gives more space for hemoglobin.
Thus, more oxygen molecules can be
transported.
VIII. Cell Cycle and Cell Divisions
○ Red blood cells also lack
mitochondria. They generate their
energy through anaerobic The Genetic Material of Cells
respiration.
1. DNA Molecule
➢ White blood cells are responsible for the
body’s defenses. ➢ Almost every cell in our bodies has
genetic material in the form of
○ They can either be granulocytes or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
agranulocytes.
➢ Most biological traits such as eye color,
➢ Egg cells are the largest cells in the hair color, and height are coded for by the
human body and are necessary for sexual DNA.
reproduction.
➢ The primary genetic material of living
➢ Sperm cells travel from the testes to the organisms, stores genetic information in
female’s fallopian tube to facilitate an the sequences of its nucleotides.
event called fertilization.
2. Chromatin
Specialized Cells and Cell Structures in Plants
➢ Interphase DNA is found in the form of
1. Trichomes chromatin, a complex of DNA and
proteins.
➢ These are epidermal outgrowths
responsible for: ➢ Chromatin is dispersed inside the intact
cell nucleus during interphase.
○ Preventing insect attacks
➢ Chromatin will sometimes need to further
○ Shading leaves condense into a highly coiled and
compact structure. This highly condensed
○ Trapping insects
form of DNA is known as a chromosome.
2. Root Hairs
➢ Humans have 46 individual (or 23 pairs
➢ Root hairs are tiny hair-like structures that of) chromosomes.
originated from the epidermis of plants.

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Introduction to Cell Cycle method of replication is called the
semi-conservative method.
All species of organisms have their own life cycle
that shows how they are born, develop, and 3. Interphase - G2
mature.
➢ Continued growth and the production of
Much like entire organisms, individual cells also materials that are necessary for cell
have their own life cycle. The life cycle of a cell is division to occur.
known as the cell cycle, and this describes how
cells grow, develop, and reproduce. ➢ Protein synthesis but not at the rate
similar to that of the G1 phase.
1. Interphase - G1
4. M - Phase
➢ Growth of cytoplasm and doubling of
organelles. ➢ The M phase in eukaryotic organisms
involves either one of two processes,
➢ Produce proteins, enzymes, nutrients, and namely, mitosis and meiosis.
energy.
○ Sex cells or gametes undergo
➢ Highest rate of protein synthesis. meiosis, whereas somatic cells or
non-sex cells undergo mitosis.
➢ Movement of centrioles of the
centrosomes away to await and assist the 5. Cytokinesis
events of mitosis.
➢ Cytokinesis is marked by the formation of
2. Interphase - S a cleavage furrow in animal cells.

➢ This stage is named so because it is when ➢ Cytokinesis is marked by the formation of

the cell synthesizes a copy of its DNA in a a cell plate in plant cells.
very notable process called DNA
replication. The Cell Cycle Checkpoints

○ This refers to the event when an 1. G1-to-S Checkpoint

existing DNA produces another copy ➢ Is there any damage in the cell’s DNA?
of itself.
➢ Is the cell large enough with all the
➢ Steps necessary energy reserves and doubled
1. A representative portion of DNA, organelles?
which is about to undergo replication. 2. G2-to-M Checkpoint
2. The two strands of the DNA separate. ➢ Are the environmental conditions
The hydrogen bonds between the favorable for cell division to take place?
bases break.
➢ Is the DNA properly replicated?
3. Free nucleotides are attracted to their
complementary bases. ➢ Is there a presence of DNA damage?

4. Once the new nucleotides have lined 3. M Checkpoint

up, they are joined together by the
enzyme DNA polymerase. ➢ Are the spindles properly attached?

5. Finally, all the nucleotides are joined

to form a complete polynucleotide
chain using DNA polymerase. In this
way, two identical strands of DNA are
formed. As each strand retains half of
the original DNA material, this

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 2. Prometaphase

➢ It begins after the nuclear envelope

breaks down.

➢ The centrosomes move to opposite poles.

➢ The kinetochores found at the

centromeres become apparent.

IX. Stages of Mitosis

Changes in Chromosome Number during 3. Metaphase

Mitosis
➢ The microtubules of the mitotic spindle
1. Chromosome attach and interact with the kinetochores
of the chromosomes.
➢ DNA in interphase is found in the form of
chromatin which condenses during ➢ The chromosomes align at the center of
mitosis. the cell, in the metaphase plate.
➢ Each chromosome is made up of two 4. Anaphase
sister chromatids.
➢ The mitotic spindle pulls and separates
2. Haploid and Diploid Cells the sister chromatids apart.
➢ The human genome has 23 pairs of ➢ The chromatids, now called daughter
chromosomes for a total of 46 chromatids, are then pulled toward the
chromosomes in each cell. 23 is the opposite poles.
haploid number whereas 46 is the
diploid number. 5. Telophase

○ Haploid is often represented as n ➢ Daughter chromatids decondense.

while diploid is 2n.
➢ In animals, the boundary of the new cells
○ The number of sets of chromosomes is known as the cleavage furrow.
that a cell or an organism has is
known as ploidy. ➢ In plants, it is known as the cell plate.

➢ All human body cells are diploid except 6. Cytokinesis

gametes which are haploid. ➢ After telophase, cytokinesis will divide the
Phases of Mitosis cell into two.

1. Prophase ➢ Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but is

closely related to it.
➢ The chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. ➢ Each of the two daughter cells will inherit
a nucleus, similar genetic material,
➢ The nucleolus disintegrates. organelles, and more.

➢ The mitotic spindle starts to form. Ploidy in Mitosis

The number of chromosomes before and after

mitosis.

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 3. Metaphase I

➢ Alignment of the homologous

chromosomes at metaphase plate.

➢ Maternal and paternal chromosomes are

randomly arranged.

➢ Facilitates reduction in chromosome

number.

4. Anaphase I

➢ Separation of the homologous pairs.

➢ Maternal and paternal members move to

X. Stages of Meiosis either pole.

Meiotic Division
5. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
1. Production of functional sex cells or gametes.
➢ Chromosomes reach opposite poles.
2. Reduction in the chromosome number.
➢ The cytoplasm divides.
3. Two rounds: meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis II
4. Allows restoration of original chromosome
1. Prophase II
number during fertilization.
➢ A new spindle forms around the
Meiosis involves two rounds of cytokinesis which
chromosomes.
will ultimately produce four daughter cells with a
reduced chromosome number. 2. Metaphase II

Meiosis I ➢ Chromosomes line up at the equator.

1. Prophase I 3. Anaphase II

➢ Centromeres divide. Chromatids move to

the opposite poles of the cells.

4. Telophase II

➢ A nuclear envelope forms around each set

of chromosomes. The cytoplasm divides.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

2. Prometaphase I Differences between human mitosis and meiosis in

terms of the number of chromosomes of the
➢ Further chromosomal condensation.
daughter cells.
➢ Further disintegration of the nuclear
envelope.

➢ Meiotic spindle formation.

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 ➢ Genome must be maintained to ensure
proper biological functions.

➢ This division allows complete set of

genetic material to be inherited.

➢ The genome of an organism dictates its

characteristics. It can also be attributed to
the various traits such as the diversity of
facial features.

2. Growth and Development

Difference between Meiosis I and Meiosis II Organisms as huge as the elephants grow
through repeated mitosis.
1. Synapsis occurs only in meiosis I.
➢ Growth as an essential part of an
2. Crossing over occurs only in meiosis I. organism’s maturity.

3. Tetrads line up and separate into individual ➢ Growth as the increase in the organism’s
homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. size.

4. Sister chromatids line up and separate into ➢ Growth achieved through an increase in
individual chromosomes in meiosis II. cell number.

➢ Growth as a process attributed to mitosis.

Importance of Crossing Over The process of cleavage immediately follows

the formation of the zygote.
1. Facilitates genetic recombination.

2. Enhances genetic variation.

3. Increases chances of survival.

Changes in Number of Chromosomes

3. Repair and Recovery

➢ Old and damaged cells are replaced

through mitotic division.

4. Asexual Reproduction

➢ Some pressures push an organism to

resort to asexual reproduction.

➢ Lone parent reproduces asexually.

➢ Mitosis as the primary mechanism of

XI. Significance and Implications of Mitosis
asexual reproduction.
and Meiosis
➢ Genetic material is completely inherited by
the offspring.
The Significance of Mitosis

1. Maintenance of Genetic Material

➢ Complete set of genetic material in

somatic cells.

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The Significance of Meiosis 2. Genetic Engineering

1. Reduction of Genetic Material and Sexual ➢ Meiosis produces new cell variants, and
Reproduction mitosis proliferates genetically modified
cells.
➢ Reduction in chromosome number to
produce gametes.

➢ Allows both parents to contribute genetic

material.

➢ Restoration of chromosome number

during fertilization.

2. Inheritance

➢ An example of how chromosomes are

passed from parents to children.

3. Genetic Diversity

➢ Different colors of corn kernel can be an

indicator of high genetic diversity.

4. Survival

➢ Increase in the probability of survival as

more traits can buffer the effects of
changes in the environment.

➢ Crossing over as a mechanism of genetic

recombination.

➢ Increase in genetic diversity resulting in

more traits which can be adaptive.

➢ Production of new genetic variants.

The hair of wooly mammoths are an

adaptation for cold climates.

Applications of Mitosis and Meiosis

1. Stem Cell Technology

➢ Applications of stem cell therapy range

from genetic disorders to injuries.

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