GALGOTIA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

& TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

LAB HANDOUT
BEC-151/251 – BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGG. LAB

ODD/EVEN
SEMESTER
2024-2025
 Vision of Institute

To be a leading educational institution recognized for excellence in

engineering education and research producing globally competent
and socially responsible technocrats.

Mission of Institute

IM1: To provide state of the art infrastructural facilities that support

achieving academic excellence.
IM2: To provide a work environment that is conducive for
professional growth of faculty and staff.
IM3: To collaborate with industry for achieving excellence in
research, consultancy and entrepreneurship development.
 Vision of Department
To be recognized as a centre of excellence in Electronics and Communication Engineering
for the quality and global education, interdisciplinary research and innovation, to produce
committed graduates who can apply knowledge and skills for the benefit of society.

Mission of Department

DM1: To provide quality education by providing state of the art facility and solutions for
global challenges.
DM2: To provide a framework for promoting the industry-institution collaboration and
empower the students in interdisciplinary research.
DM3: To transform students into socially responsible, ethical and technically proficient
engineers with innovative skills and usage of modern tools.
DM4: To make the students corporate ready with spirit and necessary interpersonal skills.

Program Educational Objectives

Graduates will excel in their career by acquiring knowledge in the field of
PEO 1 Electronics and Communication Engineering with the usage of modern tools
and emerging technologies.
Graduates will have the capability to analyze real life problems of the society
PEO 2
and produce innovative solutions.
Graduates exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, communication skills and
PEO 3 team work in core engineering, academia and research organizations through
professional development and life-long learning.

Program Outcomes

PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes

By the completion of Electronics & Communication Engineering program the student
will be able to:
PSO1: Design and develop models for analog& digital electronic circuits and
systems.
PSO2: Design, develop and test electronic and communication systems for
applications with real time constraints.

Course Outcomes

Semester 1&2
Course Code BEC-151/251
Course Name BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB
Course Outcome Statement (On completion of this course, the student will be able to)
CO1 Demonstrate the behaviour of various applications PN junction diode.
CO2 Conduct experiments illustrating the characteristics of BJT and applications
of OPAMP.
CO3 Implementation and truth table verification of various logic gates.
 Mapping of CO PO and PSO

Semester I
Course BEC-151/251
Code
Course BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB
Name
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO PO P PO PO PO PSO PSO2
CO 7 8 O 10 11 12 1
9
CO1 3 2 2 2 3 - - - 1 2 - 3 3 2
CO2 3 2 2 2 3 - - - 1 2 - 3 3 2
CO3 3 3 3 2 3 - - - 1 1 - 3 3 2
Average 3 2.3 2.3 2 3 - - - 1 1.6 - 3 3 2

Experiments available on virtual lab

P-N Junction on diode: Characteristics of http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp5/index.html

Junction diode - Static and dynamic
resistance measurement from graph.
Applications of PN Junction diode: Half &
Full wave rectifier-Measurement of V http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp6/index.html
rms, Vdc,
and ripple factor http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp7/index.html
Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp10/index.html
characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical
measurement of forward and reverse
resistance.
Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp11/index.html
configuration.
To study Operational Amplifier as Adder http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp17/index.html
and Subtractor
http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp18/index.html
Verification of Truth Table of Various https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/
Logic Gate
exp/truth-table-gates/
Implementation of the given Boolean https://de-iitr.vlabs.ac.in/digital-electronicsiitr/
function using logic gates in both SOP
and POS forms. exp/realization-of-logic-functions/
 SYLLABUS (BEC-151/251)

List of Experiments:

1. Study of various types of Active & Passive Components based on their

ratings.
2. Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering
Techniques.
3. Soldering shop: Soldering and Desoldering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering
and Desoldering of IC in PCB. Soldering and Desoldering of Capacitor in
PCB.
4. Study of Lab Equipments and Components: CRO, Multimeter, and Function
Generator, Power supply- Active, Passive Components and Bread Board.
5. P-N Junction diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode - Static and
dynamic resistance Measurement from graph.
6. Applications of PN Junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement
of Vrms, Vdc, and ripple factor.
7. Characteristics of Zener diode: V-I characteristics of Zener diode, Graphical
measurement of forward and reverse resistance.
8. Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration.
9. To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.
10.Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 01

AIM: To Study of Active and Passive Components based on their ratings.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity

1. CRO with Probe Dual Trace (30MHz) 1
2. Function Generator 3 MHz (Scientific) HM5030 1
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM) Mastech ( MAS830L) 1
4. Active and passive components IN4007, BC547,548, 1 no. each
(Diode, Transistor, Resistance , R=1k,10k,100k, C=0.1pf,
Capacitance) 0.01pf and 10pf/25V etc.
5. Bread Board 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 1
6. Power supply +5V, 0-30V Variable 1

THEORY:
Basic Components: Basic components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, light emitting
diode (LED) and transistors can be divided into 2 categories:
(i) Passive components like resistors and capacitors and Inductors.
(ii) Active components like diodes, transistors and all Semiconductor Devices.

Passive Components:-
Passive components cannot control electric current utilizing a second electrical signal. Some
important passive components are capacitors, resistors, inductors, and transformers. Passive
components do not requireenergy to operate barring the AC circuit. Unlike the Active
component, they are unable to augment the signalpower and also cannot amplify it. There are
majorly two types of passive components namely
Lossy or Dissipative: These cannot absorb power from an external circuit. Resistors are an
example of lossypassive components.
Lossless: These do not have any input or output net level flow. A few examples of lossless
components areinductors, transformers, and gyrators.
Active Components:-

Active components are devices that can amplify an electric signal and produce power. Any
characteristic active component will comprise an oscillator, transistor or an integrated circuit.
An active component functions as analternating current circuit in devices. This helps the device
to augment power and voltage. This component canexecute its operations because it is powered
by a source of electricity. All active components necessitate some source of energy which
commonly is extracted from a DC circuit.
Resistors: Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors.
Variable resistors Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors.
The resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an
example of continuously varying resistor.

Fig.1. Different types of Resistors

Capacitors
Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit
to another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by
dielectric materials.
Electrolytic Capacitors: There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors:
(i) Axial where the leads are attached to each end (220µF in picture) and
(ii) Radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture) Refer fig 4.

(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors have their values printed but
without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in
between 2 digits indicating a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Inductors: Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used
to vary the impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning.
 Fig.6. Different Types of Inductors

Diode: A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to
rectify an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like Zener and LED’s are used for
other purposes. A normal diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a transparent
casing. Their pictures and symbols are given in fig. 7.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED’s are p-n junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.

Fig.8 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Transistors
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal
device made of three layers of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and
collector.
Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols and some of the casings for NPN and PNP.
and fig 9 illustrates the three terminal name :emitter(E) , base(B)and collector(C).
Results: All Active & Passive components have been identified and tested, all results are
indicated in Tables.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

All the active and passive components have been identify and measured their values successfully.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make all electrical connections should be tight.
2. All the Measurements observations should be taken carefully.
3. Switch off all equipment power supply after completed experiments.
4. Use all Equipment carefully and don’t rotate knobs of equipment unnecessary.
 EXPERIMENT NO-2

Aim:-Identification of various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering Techniques.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
1. Various types of PCB
2. Soldering Iron 35W
3. Solder Wire
4. Flux or Rasin
5. Wire Cutter
6. General Purpose PCB
7. Resistance, Capacitors & Other Components etc.

Theory:

The acronym of the printed circuit board is PCB; it is a self-contained board with interconnected electrical and
electronic components found in various devices ranges from beepers to pagers, radios, and radar and computer
systems. The circuits are produced by a slight layer of conducting material deposited on the outside of an
insulating board called as the substrate. Separate components are located on the surface of the substrate &
soldered to the connected circuits. The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single
sided, double sided and multi layered.

Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards

PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are located They are specially
designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy. Though, making the PCB necessitates
special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards mainly include the following:

 Single Sided PCBs

 Double Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Single Sided PCBs

This single sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or substrate. One end of the
substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper because it is a good electrical conductor.
Generally, a protecting solder mask be seated on the peak of the copper layer, and a last silkscreen coat may
be applied to the top to mark elements of the board. This PCB consists of various circuits and electronic
components on the only single side.
 Fig. 1 Single Sided Printed Circuit Board
Double Sided PCBs
This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the board’s substrate include
metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well. Holes in the PCB let circuits on a single
side to attach to circuits on the other side.

Fig. 2 Double Sided Printed Circuit Board

These kinds of circuit boards used to connect the circuits on every side using one of two techniques: through-
hole & surface mount technology. Through-hole technology engages feeding small wires, called as leads
through the holes & soldering every end to the suitable component.

Multilayer PCBs
These PCBs further enlarges the density and complexity of PCB designs by adding extra layers beyond the top
& bottom layers seen in a configuration of double sided. With the accessibility of over many layers in
multilayer printed circuit board configurations, multilayer PCBs let designers to make very thick and highly
compound designs.
 Fig. 3 Multilayer Printed Circuit Board
In addition to having different numbers of layers & sides, Printed circuit boards can also come in changing
inflexibilities. Most customers usually think of inflexible PCBs when they image a circuit board. Rigid printed
circuit boards use a solid, rigid substrate material like fiberglass that remains the board from twisting. A
motherboard within the tower of a computer is the best example of an inflexible PCB.

Fig. 4 Rigid PCBs

Flexible PCBs
Generally, the substrate in a flexible board is a flexible plastic. This fundamental material permits the board to
fit into forms that inflexible boards cannot & to turn or shift during use without harmful the circuits on the
printed circuit board. Though flex boards tend to charge more to intend and create than rigid PCBs, they come
with a number of advantages. For instance, they can restore heavy or bulky wiring in superior gear like
satellites, where weight & space matter. Flex boards can also come in three formats, namely single sided,
double-sided or multilayer formats.
 Fig. 5 Flexible PCBs

Rigid-Flex PCBs
Rigid flex boards merge technology from both flexible and rigid circuit boards. An easy rigid-flex board
comprises of a rigid circuit board those joints to a flex circuit board. These boards can be more compound if
design requests demand. Thus, this is all about different types of printed circuit boards, which includes Sided
PCBs, Double Sided PCBs, Multilayer PCBs, Rigid PCBs, Flex PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, etc.

Fig. 6 Rigid Flexible PCBs

Soldering Techniques for Building Printed-Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Printed-circuit board (PCB) design is important not only to evaluate circuit ideas before integrating them onto
a chip but also because the performance of integrated prototype chips is highly dependent on the evaluation
board used to test them. Consequently, developing PCB-building and soldering skills are important, which is
why the purpose of this document is to review some basic soldering tools and techniques.
Different Methods of Soldering
The methods of the soldering process can be classified into two, namely soft soldering and hard soldering.

Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is a process for fitting very minute compound parts possessing low liquefying temperature, whichhave
been broken during the procedure of soldering is performed at high temperature. In this process, a tin-leadalloy is
used as space filler metal. The liquefying temperature of the space filler alloy must not be less than 400oC / 752oF.
A gas torch is used as a heat source, for the procedure. Some of the examples of this kind of soldering metals
include tin-zinc for bonding aluminum, tin-lead for general usage; zinc-aluminum foraluminum, cadmium-silver for
power at high temperature; lead-silver for strength higher than room temperature, weakening confrontation, tin-
silver & tin-bismuth for electrical products.
Hard Soldering
In this type of soldering a solid solder unites two elements of metals by spreading out into the holes of the
component that are unlocked due to high temperature. The space filler metal grips a higher temperature of morethan
450oC/840oF. It comprises of two elements: Silver soldering and Brazing.

Basic Soldering Tools

Basic Soldering Tools:

 Soldering Iron – Used to melt solder and connect component pins to board pads. A
cheap soldering pencil may be sufficient, but a temperature-controlled solder station is
best for high performance boards.
  Solder – An alloy of tin and lead with a low melting point. Based on diameter and
metallic and core content, various soldering solutions are available. For example, thick
and thin solders are useful for connecting power devices and surface mount technology
(SMT) components, respectively.
 Flux or Rosin – A substance used to channel solder flow and prevent oxide formation.
Rosin was first used for this purpose, but it is a bit messy. Flux is better and therefore
more popular today.
 Solder Wick or De-soldering Braid – A tool used to extract solder and de-solder
components from the board, for which a pump is sometimes helpful, if large amounts
of solder are present.
 Pliers, Knife, Multi-Meter, and Magnifier – Pliers are used to cut, bend, and
sometimes strip component leads; a knife to strip wires and trim traces; multi-meters to
test electrical connectivity; and a magnifier for soldering small SMT chip components.
 Test connectivity – Examine and evaluate solder connections both visually and
electrically (with a multi- meter), especially for small joint connections.

Results:
We have studies & identified various types of Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) and soldering
Techniques with basic Soldering Tools.

Precautions:-

1. Do not twist or fold the given PCB.

2. Connections must be made according to circuit diagram.
3. Power must be switched on after checking the connections.
 EXPERIMENT-3

Aim: - Soldering shop: Soldering and desoldering of Resistor in PCB. Soldering and de-
soldering of IC in PCB. Soldering and disordering of Capacitor in PCB.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-

1. Soldering Equipment (35-W Iron with Stand)

2. DE soldering pump(Suma) or DE soldering Wik
3. Solder wire
4. Wire Cutter
5. Solder Flux
6. And Electronic Components etc

THEORY:

Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys, which have relatively low
melting points". In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the
surfaces to be soldered together. Soldering is more like gluing with molten metal than anything
else. Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a
skill that can only be developed with practice. The steps involved with soldering will be
explained later in the document.

Soldering Equipment:

Soldering requires two main things: a soldering iron and solder. Soldering irons are the heat
source used to melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed
circuit board work. Using anything higher in wattage and you risk damaging either the
component or the board. Note that you should not use so-called soldering guns. These are very
high wattage and generate most of their heat by passing an electrical current through a wire.
Because of this, the wire carries a stray voltage that could damage circuits and components. The
choice of solder is also important. One of the things to remember is to never use acid core solder.
Acid core solder will corrode component leads, board traces and form conductive paths between
components. The best solder for electronics work is a thin rosin core solder1

17
Soldering Procedure:

1. Surface Preparation
A clean surface is very important if you want a strong, low resistive solder joint. Since you
already have a PCB design, you don’t have to worry about your board being clean. But, make
sure that your component leads are clean.
2. Component Placement
Bend the leads as necessary and insert the component through the proper holes on the board. To
hold the part in place while you are soldering, you may want to bend the leads on the bottom of
the board at a 45 degree angle, refer to figure 3 below.

3. Apply Heat
Apply a very small amount of solder to the tip of the iron. This helps conduct the heat to the
component and board, but it is NOT the solder that will make up the joint. Now you are ready to
actually heat the component and board. Lay the iron tip so that it rests against both the
component lead and the board. Normally, it takes one or two seconds to heat the component up
enough to solder, but larger components and larger soldering pads on the board can increase the
time.

18
 4. Apply Solder and Remove Heat
Once the component lead and solder pad has heated up, you are ready to apply solder. Touch the
tip of the strand of solder to the component lead and solder pad, but NOT the tip of the iron. If
everything is hot enough, the solder should flow freely around the lead and pad.
Don't move the joint for a few seconds to allow the solder to cool. If you do move the joint, you
will get what's called a "cold joint". A cold joint is a joint in which the solder does not make
good contact with the component lead or printed circuit board pad. Cold joints occur when the
component lead or solder pad moves before the solder is completely cooled. Cold joints make a
really bad electrical connection and can prevent your circuit from working.
Cold joints can be recognized by a characteristic grainy, dull gray colour, and can be easily fixed.
This is done by first removing the old solder with a de soldering tool or simply by heating it up
and flicking it off with the iron. Once the old solder is off, you can resolder the joint, making
sure to keep it still as it cools. Refer to figure 5 for a picture of correctly applying solder.

19
De-soldering
At some stage you will probably need to de-solder a joint to remove or re-position a wire or
component. There are two ways to remove the solder:
1. with a de-soldering pump
This is also known as a 'solder sucker'. It is best to use one with an ESD (electrostatic
discharge) nozzle to protect some ICs which can be damaged by static electricity.

1. Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.
2. Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
3. Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
4. Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten solder
into the tool.
5. Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
6. The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

2. with solder remover braid

The copper braid acts as a wick for the molten solder which readily flows onto the braid,
away from the joint.

1. Apply both the end of the copper braid and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
2. As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the braid, away from the joint.
3. Remove the braid first, then the soldering iron.
4. Cut off and discard the end of the braid coated with solder.

After removing most of the solder from the joint(s) you may be able to remove the wire or
component lead straight away (allow a few seconds for it to cool). If the joint will not come apart
easily apply your soldering iron to melt the remaining traces of solder at the same time as pulling
the joint apart, taking care to avoid burning yourself.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:We have studies and successfully done soldering and
desoldering process of Resistor,IC ,and Capacitor in PCB.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.That is very hot (about 400 C) and
will burn.
2. Hold wires to be heated with tweezers or clamps.
3. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
4. Turn unit off or unplug it when not in use.
1. Always return your soldering iron to its stand immediately aft
20
 EXPERIMENT NO. 04

AIM: To Study of lab equipment and components: CRO, Digital Multi-meter, Function
Generator, Power supply- Active, and Passive Components & Bread Board.

COMPONENT REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Apparatus / Components Specification Quantity

1. CRO with Probe Dual Trace (30MHz) 1
2. Function Generator 3 MHz 1
3. Digital Multimeter (DMM) MAS830L 1
4. Active and passive components IN4007, BC547,548, 1 no. each
(Diode, Transistor, Resistance , R=1k,10k,100k, C=0.1pf,
Capacitance) 0.01pf and 10pf/25V etc.
5. Power supply & Bread Board +5V, 0-30V Variable 1

THEORY:

CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for making circuit
measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the oscilloscope screen. The
oscilloscope provided with Multisim Electronics Workbench is a dual trace oscilloscope that
looks and acts like a real oscilloscope. A dual trace oscilloscope allows the user to display and
compare two time-varying voltages at one time.

The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:

1. The TIME BASE control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per division
when Y/T is selected. When B/A is selected, the horizontal axis no longer represents time. The
horizontal axis now represents the voltage on the channel A input and vertical axis represents the
voltage on channel B input. When A/B is selected, the horizontal axis represents the voltage on
the channel B input and the vertical axis represents the voltage on the channel A input. The
X_POS control determines the horizontal position where the curve plot begins.

2. The CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the channel A
curve plot. The Y-POS control determines the vertical position of the channel A curve plot

21
relative to the horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel A vertical
input and the circuit testing point. Selecting “0” connects channel A vertical input to ground.

3. The CHANNEL B control adjusts the volts per division of the vertical axis for the channel B
curve plot. The Y-POS determines the vertical position of the channel B curve plot relative to the
horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel B vertical input and the
circuit test point. Selecting “0” connects the channel B vertical input to ground.

4. The trigger settings control the conditions under which a curve plot is triggered (begins to
display). Triggering can be internal (based on one of the input signals) or external (based on a
signal applied to the oscilloscope external trigger input). With internal triggering AUTO, A, or B.
If A is selected, the curve plot will be triggered by channel A input signal. If |B is selected, the
curve plot will be triggered by channel B input signal. If you expect a flat input waveshape or
you want the curve plot displayed as soon as possible, select AUTO. The display can be set to
start on positive or negative slope of the input by selecting the appropriate EDGE selection. The
trigger LEVEL control determines the voltage level of the input signal waveform, in divisions on
the vertical axis, before the waveform will begin to display.

Fig.1. Block Diagram of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)

Function Generator

The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage functions.
The Multi-sim Electronics Workbench can supply sine wave, square wave, and triangular wave
voltage functions. The wave shape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and dc offset can be easily
changed. It has three voltage output terminals.

22
 Fig.2. Block Diagram of Function Generator

Connect the COM terminal to ground symbol. The +ve terminal provides output voltage that
is positive with respect to the COM terminal and the –ve terminal proves an output voltage
that is negative with respect to the COM terminal.

The controls on the function generator are as follows:

1. You can select a wave shape by clicking the appropriate wave shape on the top of the function
generator.

2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage up to 999 MHz.
Click up or down arrow to adjust the frequency, or click the frequency box and type the desired
frequency.

3. The AMPLITUDE control allows you to adjust the amplitude of the output voltage measured
from the reference level (common) to peak level. The peak to peak value is twice the amplitude
setting.

4. The OFFSET control adjusts the dc level of the voltage curve generated by the function
generator. An offset of 0 positions the curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive and
negative voltage setting. A positive offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a negative
offset lowers the curve plot below the x-axis.

Multimeter

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.

23
 Fig.3. Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—Analog multi-meters (AMM) and

Digital Multi-meters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually
based on micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar
of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. A multimeter can be a hand-held device
useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to
a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide
array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Power Supply

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term
is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another,
though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical,
solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or
current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either
load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.

24
 Fig.4. Block Diagram of Power Supply

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source.

Active Elements & Passive Elements

"The elements within a circuit will either control the flow of electric energy or respond to it.
Those elements which control the flow of electric energy are known as active elements and those
which dissipate or store the electric energy are passive elements."
"The three linear passive elements are the Resistor, the Capacitor and the Inductor.
Examples of non-linear passive devices would be diodes, switches and spark gaps. Examples of
active devices are Transistors, Triacs, Varistors, and Vacuum Tubes, relays, solenoids and piezo
electric devices."

Bread Board

A breadboard (proto-board) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term is

commonly used to refer to solder-less bread-board (plug-board). Because the solder-less bread-
board does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for creating temporary
prototypes and experimenting with circuit design.

25
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

CRO, Digital Multi-meter, Function Generator, Power supply-

Active, and Passive Components & Bread Board has been studied successfully.

PRECAUTIONS:

 Avoid short circuits: Short circuits between the power and ground buses can cause the
breadboard to melt and the wires to get hot enough to burn you. If you smell or see smoke,
you should immediately disconnect the battery pack.
 Be careful with components: Avoid using oversized wires, excessive force, or flat-blade
electrical components that could damage the breadboard. You should also handle ICs
carefully.
 Make connections tight: Ensure that connections are tight.
 Test components: Test components before you start working.

26
 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

AIM: To study of P-N Junction Diode: Characteristics of PN Junction diode-Static and

Dynamic -resistance measurement from graph.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus Specification Quantity

1. Diode 1N4007 1
2. Digital Multi-meter (DMM) Mastech ( MAS830L) 2
3. Connecting leads Single Core 4

THEORY:- A PN junction diode is a unidirectional two terminal semiconductor device. It conducts

only in forward bias (i.e. when its anode is at higher potential w.r.t. its cathode) & offers high
resistance in other direction. The two terminals of diode are called anode & cathode. When a diode is
forward biased, the barrier potential at junction reduces and the majority carriers cross the junction
easily. This causes current to flow through the diode. In reverse bias, the barrier potential increases
and almost no current can flow through the diode.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN- JUNCTION DIODE: - If diode is used as a circuit in an

electrical circuitthere may be a requirement to know how it responds or behaves in electric circuit. This
type of information may be obtained by a curve known as “Volt- Ampere” (V-I) characteristics of a
diode.

The entire V-I characteristics may be divided into two parts-

1. Forward Characteristics
2. Reverse Characteristics

1. FORWARD BAISING:-When the anode of an external battery is connected to the P side and the
cathode to the N side, it is called forward biasing as shown in Fig. 1. If the applied potential difference
is higher thanthat of the barrier potential, holes would be forced to move towards N side and electrons
towards P side. Thus

27
current starts flowing through the junction in the external circuit. The forward current increases
exponentially with the applied potential difference.

2. REVERSE BAISING: - When the anode of an external battery is connected to the N side
and the cathode to the P side, it is called Reverse biasing as illustrating in Fig1(b).

(a) (b)

Fig.-1 (a)-(b)Circuit Diagram in forward & reverse bias

Fig.-1 (b) V-I characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

In this case the polarity of the fictitious battery is the same as that of the external battery. Thus,
It leads to the increases in the potential barrier, and electron in N type and hole in P type are
drawn away from junction, and hence hardly there is any current lowing in the external circuit.
PROCEDURE:
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should be noted.
4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be brought
near the negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved towards the
positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter,
28
increase the VF to 0.4 V.
 8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the VF becomes 0.7 V,
the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward breakdown
stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won’t change as VF increased beyond forward
breakdown.
11. Record the observations.

For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K and bring
the rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end so as to
flow the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When VR becomes 20 V, the
current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse breakdown
stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.

OBSERVATIONS:
Forward Bias:

Sr. No. Input Voltage (Volt) V� (Volt) IF (mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reverse Bias:

Sr. No. Input Voltage (Volt) VR (Volt) IR (µA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
29
CALCULATION:
The static resistance of the diode as RF = VF /IF
The dynamic resistance of the diode as RF = δ VF / δ IF

Results And Discussion:

The V-I characteristics (forward and reverse biased) is plotted on the graph which is true
according to theory.

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage of
the diode.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.

30
 EXPERIMENT NO. 06

AIM: Applications of PN junction diode: Half & Full wave rectifier- Measurement of VRMS,
VDC, and ripple factor.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Apparatus / Software Used Specification Quantity

1. Diode 1N4007 4
2. CRO Dual Trace (30MHz) 1
3. Function Generator 3MHz 1
4. Transformer Centre Tapping 6V-0-6V @ 300mA 1
5. Bread-Board -----
6. Connecting Wire Single Core 4

THEORY:
Rectifier circuit is used to convert AC signal into dc signal. Rectification is of two types:

1. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: -In half wave rectifier during half cycle of input signal, the
diode is forward biasand conducts. Current flow through the load resistance RL and voltage
is developed across it. During negative (-ve) half cycle of input signal, the diode gets
reverse biased & no current flows through the load resistor RL .

Fig.1 Connection diagram for half wave rectifier.

31
 A transformer couple a.c. input voltage to the rectifier circuit. In this type of rectifier
circuit only the positive half cycle is utilized. The circuit diagram of HWR with its input
and output wave forms is shown in Fig.1

2. FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

Unlike a half wave rectifier, a full wave rectifier conducts in both half cycles of ac voltage. Full
wave rectifier can be implemented in two ways

a) Full wave bridge rectifier

Fig.2. Connection diagram for full wave rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier: Bridge rectifier uses four diodes. When input AC signal is applied across the bridge
rectifier,during the positive half cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and allows electric current
while the diodesD2 and D4 are reverse biased and blocks electric current. On the other hand, during the
negative half cycle diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and allow electric current through load
resistance while diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased and blocks electric current. During the positive half
cycle, the terminal A becomes positive whilethe terminal B becomes negative. This causes the diodes D1
and D3 forward biased and at the same time, it causes the diode D2 and D4 reverse biased. Full wave
Bridge type full wave rectifier with its input and output wave form is shown in Figure 2.

b) Full wave centre tap rectifier

Fig.3. Connection diagram Full wave centre tap rectifier.

This is another method to obtain full wave rectification. In this method only two diodes are
32 the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts.
using. But it requires a canter tap transformer. During
In the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts so in both half cycles current flowing through load
in same direction. Thus, rectification can be obtained.

PROCEDURE:
For half wave & Full Wave rectifier circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1. It becomes a half wave rectifier circuit since only
diode D1 is in circuit, note L is short circuited and C open.
2. Switch on the power.
3. Measure AC across the transformer secondary.
4. Note the reading of dc voltage from filter meter as VDC .Calculate the theoretical
value and compare it with found value, where theoretical value VDC={ VAC(RMS) *
√2/ᴨ} .
5. Connect the AC voltmeter at the dc output socket fitted at +ve of RL side.
6. Note the AC ripple voltage as VR. Calculate the ripple factor as
7. Ripple factor R= VR / VDC .

OBSERVATIONS

Sr. No & Name VM (Volt) Vrms(Volt) VDC (Volt) Ripple Factor

For HWR

For FWR (Centre Tape)

For FWR (Bridge Rectifier)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:

Measurement of VRMS, VDC, and ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier is
calculate & noted in Observational Table.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. While doing the experiment, do not exceed the rating of the diode. This may lead to damage
of the diode.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per
the circuit diagram.

33
 EXPERIMENT NO. 07

AIM: Properties of junctions: Zener diode characteristics. V-I characteristics of Zener diode,
Graphical measurement of forward and reverse resistance.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S. No. Apparatus / Software Used Specification Quantity

1. Zener diode BZX56 (5.1V, 12V) 1

2. Voltmeter (DMM) ( 0-20V) Variable 1
3. Ammeter (DMM) (0-200mA) 1
4. Bread Board 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 1
5. Connecting wires Single Core 6-8

THEORY:
Zener diode is a P-N junction diode specially designed to operate in the reverse biased mode. It
is acting as normal diode while forward biasing. It has a particular voltage known as break
down voltage, at which the diode break downs while reverse biased. In the case of normal
diodes, the diode damages at the break down voltage. But Zener diode is specially designed to
operate in the reverse breakdown region.

(a)Forward I-V characteristics of zener diode

Fig.1.(a)Connection diagram Forward biased zener diode. Range 5.1V.

The basic principle of Zener diode is the Zener breakdown. When a diode is heavily doped, it’s
depletion region will be narrow. When a high reverse voltage is applied across the junction,
there will be very strong electric field at the junction. And the electron hole pair generation
takes place. Thus, heavy current flows. This is known as Zener break down. So a Zener diode,
34
in a forward biased condition acts as a normal diode. In reverse biased mode, after the break
down of junction current through diode increases sharply. But the voltage across it remains
constant.
(b)Reverse-biased I-V characteristics of zener diode

Fig.1.(b)Connection diagram Reverse biased zener diode.

Fig.-2 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode Forward & Reverse Biased

PROCEDURE:
For Zener diode forward breakdown characteristics of given Zener diode BZX56.

1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1a. Identify the voltage polarity meter and
diode’s polarity. Select voltmeter range to 1V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
1. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
2. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the forward breakdown
voltage
35
 3. .Increase the supply further and note the current IZF . Increase further supply till current
meter approaches to maximum.
4. Plot the forward bias curve with the reverse bias in 1stquadrent. From the curve it is
found that the zener diodes exhibit very low resistance after forward breakdown in
forward and reverse bias.
For zener diode reverse breakdown characteristics of given zener diode BZX56.

1. Connect the given diode as shown in fig.1b. Identify the voltage polarity meter and diode
polarity. Select voltmeter range to 10V. Select mode switch towards VZ mode.
2. Keep supply control to minimum (fully counter-clockwise). Switch on the power.
3. Gradually increase the supply voltage in small steps and note the readings VZ, IZ with each
increament till mA meter approaches to maximum.
4. Bring supply control to minimum. Select mode towards VS. Now again increase the supply
and note the input voltage VS with current IZ.
5. Plot the reverse bias curve from the observations. Find out the knee of the curve at minimum
current.
OBSERVATIONS:
Sr No. Input Voltage Zener Voltage Zener Current IF
(Volt) VF (Volt) (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

CALCULATION:
The Forward resistance of the diode as RF = VF /IF
The Reverse resistance of the diode as RR = VR / IR
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
The V-I characteristic of Zener diode is plotted in graph which is true according to theory.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep your hand away from the main supply.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram. 36
 EXPERIMENT NO. 08

AIM: Characteristic of BJT: BJT in CE configuration

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Sr. No. Components/ Instruments Specification Quantity
Used
1. Transistor NPN BC 147 or CL-100 1
2. Power Supply 5V, 15V Variable 2
3. DMM as Voltmeter (0-20V) Mastech ( MAS830L) 2
4. DMM as Ammeter (0-20mA) Mastech ( MAS830L) 2
5. Resistance 1KΩ 2
6. Connecting Wires Leads Single Core 8-10

THEORY:

A transistor is a 3 terminal device. It can be considered as the combination of two

diodes. In a transistor there are 3 regions: 1.emitter 2.base 3.Collector. In an NPN transistor the
emitter and collector are n types, and base is p type. In any transistor emitter is heavily doped,
base is lightly doped and collector is moderately doped. For the proper working of transistor the
emitter base junction should be forward biased and collector base junction should be reverse
biased. In a common emitter configuration, emitter is common to both input and output.

Fig. 1: Common emitter circuit.

Transistor (bipolar transistor-BJT) is a current controlled device. The input

characteristics are a plot between the base current and base emitter voltage. The dynamic input
resistance can be calculated by taking the slope of the input characteristics by keeping the
output voltage constant. The output characteristic is a plot between collector current and
collector emitter voltage by keeping the input current constant. Now the common emitter
current gain ß can be calculated as a ratio between collector current and base current at a
particular value of output voltage (collector emitter voltage).
37
The input characteristics:
To draw input characteristic the input supply VBE is varied and corresponding current IB is
noted with each incremental step, while the output supply is kept constant throughout the step.
The input impedance, Ri = VBE / IB at VCE constant (1)

Fig.2 Input characteristic curve of CE configuration

The output characteristics:
To draw output characteristics the output supply VCE is varied and corresponding current IC is
noted with each incremental step, while the input current IB is kept constant throughout the step.
The output impedance, Ro = VCE / IC at IB constant (2)

The current gain, β = IC / IB at VCE constant (3)

Fig.3 Output characteristic38curve of CE configuration

PROCEDURE: To plot the input and output characteristics of given transistor in common
emitter configuration as in fig. 1.

(A) For input characteristics. (Fig.2)

1. Keep VCE supply at dc 5volt i.e. VCE =5V.
2. Slowly increase VBE supply in small steps. Note IB and VBE for each incremental step.
3. Tabulate all observations.
4. Plot the input characteristic curve from the observations between IB and VBE. Find
out the slope of the curves as given in relation see fig2.

(B) For output characteristics. (Fig.3)

1. Keep VCE =0. Adjust IB =40µA.
2. Slowly increase VCE supply in small steps. The µAmmeter deflects back as the VCE
get increased. This is due to reverse saturation current ICEO. Re correct IB to
determined value 40µA. Note IC and VCE with each incremental step.
3. Repeat step2 for different values of IB say 80µA increment for each step. Care
should be taken to re-correct IB through the steps.
4. Tabulate the observations.
5. Plot the output characteristic curves from the observations, between IC and VCE. Fix an
operating point in the middle of the curves; find out the slope of the curve as given in
relation (2) and (3). See fig3.
OBSERVATIONS:

(A) For input characteristics.

Sr. VCE=1Volt VCE=2Volt VCE=3Volt

No. VBE (Volt) IB (mA) VBE (Volt) IB (mA) VBE (Volt) IB (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. 39
 (B) For output characteristics.

Sr. IB (µA) IB (µA) IB (µA)

No. VCE (Volt) IC (mA) VCE (Volt) IC (mA) VCE (Volt) IC (mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Result And Discussion:

Thus, the input and output characteristic of CE configuration is plotted.

Precautions:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

40
 EXPERIMENT NO. 09

AIM: To study Operational Amplifier as Adder and Subtractor.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Sr. No. Apparatus Used Specification Quantity

1. Function generator 3 MHz (Scientific) 1
HM5030
2. Regulated power supply +5V, 0-30V Variable 1
3. CRO Dual Trace (30MHz) 1
4. IC 741 5V-15V @ 20mA 2
5. Resistors (1KΩ)—4 1KΩ/ 14 W 4
6. IC bread board trainer 5 to15V @ 1Amp. 2
7. Connection Wire Single core As Required

THEORY: - An operational amplifier (or an op-amp) is an integrated circuit (IC) that operates as a voltage amplifier.
An op-amp has a differential input. That is, it has two inputs of opposite polarity. An op-amp has a single output and
a very high gain, which means that the output signal is much higher than input signal. The two input terminals are:

(i) Inverting Terminal (ii) Non- Inverting Terminal

Input at the Inverting terminal is amplified and phase shifted by 180˚ while the input at the non-invertingterminal is
amplified without phase shift. OP-Amp basically amplifies difference of signals at the two terminals.

Fig. 1 (a) Pin Diagram of IC 741 (b) Symbol of Op-amp

The adder can be obtained by using either non-inverting mode or differential amplifier. Here the
inverting mode is used. So the inputs are applied through resistors to the inverting terminal and
non-inverting terminal is grounded. This is called “virtual ground”, i.e. the voltage at that terminal
is zero. The gain of this summing amplifier is 1, any scale factor can be used for the inputs by
selecting proper external resistors.
41
 Output of adder Vo = - (V1+V2)

Fig.(a) Circuit diagram of Adder

The subtractor circuit, input signals can be scaled to the desired values by selecting appropriate
values for the resistors. When this is done, the circuit is referred to as scaling amplifier. However
in this circuit all external resistors are equal in value. So the gain of amplifier is equal to one. The
output voltage V o is equal to the voltage applied to the non-inverting terminal minus the voltage
applied to the inverting terminal; hence the circuit is called a sub-tractor.

Output of Sub tractor Vo = - (V1-V2)

Fig.(b) Circuit diagram of Subtractor

Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in circuit diagram choosing R1, R2, Rf = 10KΩ each. Use 0- ±12V
terminal output to provide supply to the IC.
2. Using 0 – 30V and 5V terminals of the power supply, apply two inputs at the inverting terminal.
Measure each input with multi-meter.
3. Measure the output with multi-meter for at least five input combinations.
4. Compare the output with the sum of the two inputs for Adder.
5. And Compare the output with the difference of the two inputs for sub tractor.

Observation Table/Observations:

42
 (a) For Adder

S.No. V1 (V) V2 (Volt) V= V1+ V2 (Volt)

1.
2.
3.

(b) For Subtractor

S.No. V1 (Volt) V2 (Volt) V=V1 - V2 (Volt)

1.
2.
3.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION:We have designed and analyzed OPAMP as adder and
Subtractor circuit IC 741.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Power supply voltage should be zero before starting the experiment.
2. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities.
3. Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
4. Connections as per the circuit diagram.

43
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM: Verification of Truth Table of Various Logic Gate.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: Digital trainer kit, connecting wires, breadboard, TTL IC’s-AND 7408,
OR 7432, NAND 7400, NOR 7402, NOT 7404, XOR 7486.

THEORY: The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates
perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-
NOR.

AND gate: - Function of AND gate is to give the output true when both the inputs are true. In all the other
remaining cases output becomes false. Following table justifies the statement.

OR gate: - Function of OR gate is to give output true when one of the either inputs are true. In the remaining
case output becomes false. Following table justify the statement.

NOT gate: -Function of NOT gate is to reverse the input. It converts true input to false and vice versa.
Following table justifies the statement.

Universal Gates

NAND gate: -Function of NAND gate is to give true output when at least one input or both the provided
inputs are false. In the remaining case output is false.

NOR gate: - NOR gate gives the output true when both the two provided inputs are false. In all the other cases
output remains false.
Advanced Gates

XOR gate: - The function of XOR gate is to give the output true if one and only one of the inputs to the gate is
true.

44
45
 PIN diagram of each Logic gate IC

7408 AND Gate 7402 NOR Gate

7400 NOT Gate

7432 OR Gate

7400 NAND Gate 7486 XOR Gate

PROCEDURE:-

1. Get the components required for the experiment.

2. Fix the IC which is under observation between the half shadow line of bread-board, so that
there is no shortage of voltage.
3. Connect the wire to the main voltage source (Vcc) whose other end is connected to last pin
of the IC (14 place from the notch). 46
4 Connect the ground of IC (7th place from the notch) to the ground terminal provided on the
digital trainer kit.
5. Give the input at any one of the gate of the IC by using connecting wires (in accordance to
IC provided).
6. Connect output pins to the led terminals on digital trainer kit.
7. Switch on the power supply.
8. If led glows, then output is true else output is false, which is numerically denoted as 1 and 0
respectively.

RESULT: -

All gates are verified. Observed output matches with the truth table values

PRECAUTIONS: -
1. All connections should be made neat and tight.
2. Digital lab kits and ICs should be handled with utmost care.
3. While making connections, main voltage should be kept off.
4. Never touch any live wires.

47