Assignment - 4

Q1. What is Spread Spectrum Modulation (SSM), and what are its primary objectives in
communication systems

➢ A collective class of signalling techniques are employed before transmitting a signal

to provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation.
The main advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent
“interference” whether it is intentional or unintentional.

The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot be jammed. An
intruder with no official access is never allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are
used for military purposes. These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and
has a wide spread of signals.

Pseudo-Noise Sequence

A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called as Pseudo-

Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length
sequence, which is a type of cyclic code.

Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals

Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood easily by observing
their frequency spectrum as shown in the following figures.

Narrow-band Signals

The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as

shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

• Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

• Power density is high.
• Spread of energy is low and concentrated.

Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.

Spread Spectrum Signals

The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed

as shown in the following frequency spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

 • Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.
• Power density is very low.
• Energy is wide spread.

With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or
jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access techniques.

The primary objectives of digital communication systems are to transmit information from
one location to another reliably and efficiently. Here are the key goals:
1. High Data Rate: Digital communication systems aim to achieve high data rates,
allowing for faster transmission of information. This is crucial for applications like
video streaming, file downloads, and real-time communication.
2. Energy Efficiency: Efficient use of energy is essential. Transmitters and receivers
should operate with minimal energy consumption while maintaining reliable
communication. Energy constraints arise from factors like battery life in mobile
devices or regulatory limits on transmitted power.
3. Spectrum Utilization: Digital communication systems need to make efficient use of
available frequency spectrum. Spectrum is a limited resource, and effective
communication requires allocating it wisely among various users and services.
4. Noise Tolerance: Noise is present in all communication channels. Systems must be
designed to handle noise and interference effectively. The goal is to maximize the
signal-to-noise ratio, ensuring reliable communication even in noisy environments.
5. Bandwidth Efficiency: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies available for
communication. Digital systems strive to use bandwidth efficiently, transmitting more
information within a given frequency range. Techniques like modulation and coding
help achieve this.
6. Error Detection and Correction: Reliable communication involves detecting and
correcting errors introduced during transmission. Error-correcting codes and protocols
play a crucial role in achieving robust communication.
7. Propagation Challenges: Signal propagation can be affected by factors like fading,
multipath interference, and attenuation. Digital communication systems must account
for these challenges to maintain reliable links.
8. Security and Privacy: Ensuring secure communication is vital. Encryption,
authentication, and privacy mechanisms are integrated into digital systems to protect
data from unauthorized access.
9. Compatibility and Interoperability: Digital communication standards and protocols
allow different devices and networks to communicate seamlessly. Compatibility
ensures that devices from various manufacturers can work together effectively.
10. Adaptability: Communication systems should adapt to changing conditions, such as
varying channel quality, interference, and mobility. Adaptive modulation, power
control, and channel estimation techniques enhance system performance.

Q2. Compare and contrast direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and frequency hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) modulation techniques
 Category FHSS DSSS

DSSS is Direct-
FHSS is Frequency-Hopping
Sequence Spread
Abbreviation Spread Spectrum
Spectrum

DSSS is a type of
FHSS is a type of spread spread spectrum
spectrum technology in which technology in which
the frequency of the transmitted the transmitted signal
signal changes according to a is spread across
specific pattern. multiple frequency
Definition
bands.

In DSSS, the data

transmission is
In FHSS, the data transmission
encoded and decoded
is encoded and decoded using a
using a pseudo-
specific pattern called hopset.
random binary
Pattern
sequence or chip code.

FHSS transmits data using a

DSSS transmits data
narrowband carrier that hops
Frequency using a wider
among different frequency
band frequency band.
channels.

FHSS is more resistant to DSSS is more

interference because it uses vulnerable to
frequency hopping, which interference because it
Interference
makes it difficult to intercept uses a wider frequency
resistant
the signal. band.

FHSS is less susceptible to DSSS is more

multipath fading, it is a susceptible to
phenomenon in which the multipath fading
transmitted signal arrives at the because it uses a wider
Susceptibility
receiver via multiple paths, frequency band.
 Category FHSS DSSS

resulting in a loss of signal

quality.

DSSS has high

Transmission FHSS has low transmission
transmission rates (up
speed rates (up to 3 Mbps).
to 11 Mbps).

Modulation
techniques Multilevel Frequency Shift BPSK (Binary Phase-
Keying (FSK) was used. Shift Keying) was used.
used

FHSS is generally more efficient DSSS is less efficient

than DSSS in terms of because it uses a wider
Efficiency
bandwidth utilization. frequency band.

It is well-suited for
It is widely used in a variety of
particular applications
applications, including wireless
where the signal must
networking like Bluetooth,
travel over long
Application mobile communications, and
distances like GPS, and
areas military communications.
WIFI.

Q3. Explain the concept of spreading codes in spread spectrum modulation. How do they influence
signal transmission

➢ Spread spectrum modulation is a technique used in telecommunications to spread the

signal over a wider frequency band than the minimum required for transmission. This
spreading provides several benefits, including increased resistance to interference and
improved security.

At the heart of spread spectrum modulation are spreading codes, also known as
spreading sequences or spreading waveforms. These codes are pseudorandom
sequences of 1s and 0s, generated by a spreading code generator. There are two main
types of spreading codes: direct sequence spreading and frequency hopping spreading.

Direct Sequence Spreading (DSSS):

 • In DSSS, each bit of the original data signal is multiplied (modulated) by a spreading
code sequence.
• The spreading code sequence typically has a much higher data rate than the original
data signal. As a result, the signal is spread over a wider bandwidth.
• The receiver must know the spreading code to correctly demodulate the signal.
Without the spreading code, the signal appears as noise, providing a form of security.
• DSSS is less susceptible to narrowband interference since the interference only affects
a small portion of the spread signal. Additionally, multiple DSSS signals can share the
same bandwidth without significant interference.

Frequency Hopping Spreading (FHSS):

• In FHSS, the carrier frequency of the signal hops between different frequencies within
a predefined frequency band.
• The hopping pattern is determined by a hopping sequence, which may be
pseudorandom or predetermined.
• FHSS offers resistance to narrowband interference because the signal is only present
on any given frequency for a short duration before hopping to another frequency.
• FHSS systems can also provide some level of security, especially if the hopping
sequence is kept secret.

Influence on Signal Transmission:

1. Interference Resistance: Spread spectrum modulation spreads the signal

energy across a wider frequency band, making it less susceptible to
narrowband interference or jamming.
2. Security: The use of spreading codes makes it difficult for unauthorized
parties to intercept and demodulate the signal without knowledge of the
spreading code.
3. Multipath Fading Mitigation: Spread spectrum techniques can mitigate the
effects of multipath fading by spreading the signal across multiple frequencies
or time intervals.
4. Increased Capacity: Spread spectrum modulation allows multiple users to
share the same frequency band without significant interference, thereby
increasing the overall capacity of the communication system.

Q4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using spread spectrum modulation in wireless
communication systems.

➢ Spread spectrum modulation offers several advantages and disadvantages in wireless

communication systems. Let's explore each:

Advantages:

1. Resistance to Interference: Spread spectrum modulation spreads the signal over a

wide frequency band, making it less susceptible to interference from other signals or
sources of noise. This resistance to interference improves the reliability and quality of
communication.
 2. Security: Spread spectrum techniques, especially those employing pseudorandom
spreading codes, provide a level of security by making it difficult for unauthorized
parties to intercept and decode the signal without knowledge of the spreading code.
3. Multipath Fading Mitigation: Spread spectrum modulation can mitigate the effects
of multipath fading, where signals take multiple paths due to reflection, refraction,
and diffraction in the wireless channel. By spreading the signal across multiple
frequencies or time intervals, spread spectrum systems can reduce the impact of
fading and improve signal reliability.
4. Coexistence and Sharing: Spread spectrum modulation allows multiple users to
share the same frequency band without significant interference. This enables more
efficient use of the available spectrum and supports higher user densities in crowded
wireless environments.
5. Low Probability of Intercept (LPI): Spread spectrum signals appear as noise-like
signals to receivers not synchronized with the spreading code. This characteristic
makes spread spectrum communication more difficult to detect and intercept,
enhancing the system's security and privacy.

Disadvantages:

1. Increased Bandwidth Requirement: Spread spectrum modulation spreads the signal

energy over a wider frequency band compared to narrowband modulation techniques.
As a result, spread spectrum systems typically require more bandwidth to achieve the
same data rate, which can be a limitation in spectrum-constrained environments.
2. Complexity and Cost: Implementing spread spectrum modulation requires more
complex hardware and signal processing algorithms compared to narrowband
modulation techniques. This complexity can lead to higher equipment costs and
power consumption, especially in mobile devices with limited resources.
3. Lower Spectral Efficiency: Due to the spreading of the signal energy over a wide
bandwidth, spread spectrum systems may have lower spectral efficiency compared to
narrowband systems. This can be a disadvantage in scenarios where maximizing data
throughput within a limited bandwidth is crucial.
4. Susceptibility to Jamming: While spread spectrum modulation offers resistance to
narrowband interference, it may still be susceptible to broadband jamming techniques
that can disrupt communication over the entire spread spectrum bandwidth.
Mitigating such jamming attacks often requires additional countermeasures and signal
processing techniques.
5. Regulatory Constraints: Some regulatory bodies impose restrictions on the use of
spread spectrum techniques in certain frequency bands or environments. Compliance
with these regulations may limit the deployment and operation of spread spectrum
systems in specific regions or applications.

Q5. Describe the process of pseudorandom sequence generation in spread spectrum

modulation. What properties should these sequences possess?

Pseudorandom sequences play a crucial role in spread spectrum modulation, providing the
spreading codes necessary to spread the signal over a wider bandwidth. Here's an overview of
the process of pseudorandom sequence generation and the properties these sequences should
possess:
 1. Generation Process:

Pseudorandom sequences are generated using mathematical algorithms or circuits known as

pseudorandom sequence generators.

These generators produce sequences of binary digits (bits) that appear random but are
deterministic, meaning that the sequence can be reproduced if the initial conditions (seed) are
known.

The generation process typically involves iterative computations based on mathematical

operations such as addition, multiplication, and logical operations (e.g., XOR).

2. Properties of Pseudorandom Sequences:a. Statistical Properties: Pseudorandom

sequences should exhibit statistical properties similar to those of truly random
sequences. These properties include:

Uniform distribution of 1s and 0s: The number of 1s and 0s should be approximately equal
over a sufficiently long sequence.

Independence: Each bit in the sequence should be statistically independent of the previous
and subsequent bits.

Balance: The number of transitions between 1s and 0s should be balanced to ensure spectral
properties suitable for spreading.

b. Long Periodicity: Pseudorandom sequences should have a long period, meaning that the
sequence should not repeat itself for a large number of iterations. A long period ensures that
the same spreading code is not repeated frequently, reducing the likelihood of interference
between different transmissions using the same spreading sequence.c. Deterministic
Reproducibility: Although pseudorandom sequences are deterministic, they should appear
random to an observer who does not know the initial seed used to generate the sequence. This
property ensures that the spreading code cannot be easily predicted or exploited by
unauthorized parties.d. Auto-correlation and Cross-correlation Properties: Pseudorandom
sequences should have low auto-correlation values (except at zero lag) and low cross-
correlation values with shifted versions of themselves. Low auto-correlation reduces self-
interference, while low cross-correlation minimizes interference between different spreading
sequences.e. Ease of Generation: Pseudorandom sequences should be efficiently generated
using hardware or software implementations, especially in real-time communication systems
where rapid generation is required.