DEP30013 : COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

1
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:-
1. apply the basic concept of communication system elements,
various types of modulation techniques, transmission system
and basic data communication in electronic communication by
using appropriate diagram. (C3, PLO1)
2. solve a well-defined problems related to noise parameters,
modulation parameters, character encoding and information
capacity using designated method and formula. (C3, PLO2)
3. construct and test various applications of related
communication equipments in performing the assigned
practical work using standard test equipment. (P4, PLO5)
4. demonstrate ability to work in a team to complete assigned
tasks during practical work sessions. (A3, PLO11)
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CHAPTER 2
MODULATION TECHNIQUES
(14 : 14)

LEARNING OUTCOME
1. Know, understand modulation and demodulation.
2. Know and understand Analog Modulation
3. Understand digital information in communication system
4. Understand and apply M-ary encoding
5. Know Pulse Modulation
6. Know and understand Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
7. Understand and solve the problems related on Sampling,
Quantization, and Encoding process in PCM.
8. Know and understand digital modulation techniques
3
2.1 Know, understand modulation and
demodulation.

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain :
- Modulation process
- Demodulation process

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MODULATION & DEMODULATION

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MODULATION & DEMODULATION

• Because it is often impractical to propagate low

frequency information signals over standard
transmission media, it is often necessary to modulate the
information signal onto a higher-frequency analog signal
called a carrier signal.

• This is because the modulation will transform the low

frequency baseband information signal into a higher
frequency passband signal. For example low-frequency
audio signal into a high radio-frequency (RF) signal.

• In essence, the high frequency carrier signal is used to

carry the low frequency information signal through the
system.

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WHAT IS MODULATION?

• DEFINITION: Modulation is a process of

changing one or more properties of the high
frequency analog carrier signal in proportion with
the values of information signal.

• The information (modulating) signal modulates

(mengubah) the carrier signal by changing either
its amplitude, frequency, or phase to produce
modulated signal.

• Modulated signal is the carrier signal that have

been modified by information signal.

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MODULATION PROCESS

Modulator
Modulated Signal (High Frequency)

Information Signal
(Low frequency) Carrier Signal
(High frequency)

 Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called

a Modulator.

 The information can be in analog or digital form, and the

modulator can perform either analog or digital
modulator.

 The information signal combines with the carrier in the

modulator to produce a high frequency modulated signal.
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DEMODULATION PROCESS

Modulator Demodulator
Modulated Signal

-
(High Frequency)
Information
Signal (Low Demodulated Signal = info
frequency) Carrier Signal (Low Frequency)
(High frequency)

 Demodulation - the reverse process of modulation. It

is a process extracting the information signal from the
modulated-carrier signal.

 Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a circuit

called Demodulator.

 Demodulated signal = Original Information Signal

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TYPES OF MODULATION
Types of Modulation

Analog Modulation Digital Communication

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Pulse Modulation Digital Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Pulse Width Modulation Amplitude Shift Keying
Phase Modulation (PM) (PWM) (ASK)

Pulse Position Modulation Frequency Shift Keying

(PPM) (FSK)
Differential PCM (DPCM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Delta Modulation PCM
(PAM)

Pulse Code Modulation Quadrature Amplitude

Adaptive Delta Modulation PCM (PCM) Modulation (QAM)

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TYPES of MODULATION

• In Analog Modulation, both Information Signal and

Carrier signal are in analog waveform.
• In Digital Modulation, Information Signal is in digital
waveform, while Carrier signal is in analog waveform.
• In Pulse Modulation, Information Signal is in analog
waveform, while Sampling signal is in digital waveform.
• Pulse modulation is necessary to convert the analog signal
to digital signal and vice versa for digital transmission.
• while Digital Modulation is necessary to convert the
digital signal to analog signal and vice versa for digital
radio.
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TYPES of MODULATION

A summary of the various modulation technique is shown here;

AM FM PM

vc(t) = Vp sin (2πft + Ɵ)

ASK FSK PSK

QAM
where;
v(ct) = time-varying sine wave of Carrier signal voltage
A = peak amplitude (volts)
f = frequency (hertz, Hz)
θ = phase shift (radians)
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WHY MODULATION IS NECESSARY?

1. It is extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signals

from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic
energy. So we need to increase the frequency of
information signal by doing the modulation process.

2. To convert the analog signal to digital signal and vice

versa for matching with communication medium and
communication needs.

3. Information signals often occupy the same frequency

band. If signals from two or more sources are
transmitted at the same time, they would interfere with
each other. To avoid interfering with each other, each
station(source) converts its information to a different
frequency band or channel by modulation process.
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WHY MODULATION IS NECESSARY?

4. To increase the bandwidth of the signal.

5. To multiplex more number of signal.
6. To reduce the antenna height and size.
7. To reduce equipment complexity.

Did you know MODEM is

stand for
Modulator-Demodulator?

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2.2 Know and understand Analog Modulation

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain :
- Amplitude Modulation
- Frequency Modulation
- Phase Modulation

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ANALOG MODULATION

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ANALOG MODULATION

In Analog Modulation, both Information Signal and

Carrier signal are in analog waveform.
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) - the amplitude (Vp)
of the analog carrier signal is varied proportional
to the analog information signal.

• Frequency Modulation (FM) - the frequency (f) of

the analog carrier signal is varied proportional to
the analog information signal.

• Phase Modulation (PM) - the phase (Ɵ) of the

analog carrier signal is varied proportional to the
analog information signal.
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1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

• Definition: Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process

of changing the amplitude of analog carrier signal in
proportion with the amplitude of the analog
information signal.
• In AM, the amplitude (V) of the carrier signal is varied
proportional to the information signal. While the
frequency (f) and phase (Ɵ) of carrier signal are
remains unchanged.
• The carrier amplitude is simply changed according to
the amplitude of the information signal. When the
information signals amplitude is increased, the carrier
signal amplitude also increased and vice versa.

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1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

vc(t)  Vc sin 2πfct

vm(t)  Vm sin 2πfmt

vAM(t)  (VcSin2πfct)(1  mSin2πfmt)

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1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

• Figure 2.1 shows the AM generation by using a

non-linear AM modulator.

• The information/modulating signal will

modulate the amplitude of carrier signal to
produce high frequency AM modulated signal
by using AM Modulator circuit.

• The shape of AM modulated signal is called AM

envelope. This “envelope” contains the
information signal.

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1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL
Characteristics: MODULATING SIGNAL (Vm) (VAM)

- Low frequency AM Envelope = info

- eg: audio signal,
voice
- May contains
single frequency or AM MODULATOR

multiple frequency
such as human
voice.

Characteristics:
CARRIER SIGNAL (Vc)
- The amplitude of carrier signal is
Characteristics: varied by the modulating signal.
- High frequency - Frequency and phase remain constant
- eg: microwave frequency - High frequency
- frequency and amplitude fixed.

Figure 2.1 : Single- Frequency Amplitude Modulation

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Figure 2.2 : Multi -Frequency Amplitude Modulation

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 undermodulation

100% modulation

overmodulation

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ANGLE MODULATION (FM & PM)

• Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) are

both forms of Angle Modulation.
• This is because whenever the frequency of a carrier is
varied, the phase is also varied and vice versa.
• Therefore, FM and PM must both occur whenever either form
of angle modulation is performed.
• The difference between FM and PM lies in which property of
the carrier (the frequency or phase) is directly varied by
modulating signal and which property is indirectly varied.
• If frequency is varied directly in accordance with modulating
signal – FM.
• If phase is varied directly in accordance with modulating signal
– PM.
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ANGLE MODULATION (FM & PM)

Carrier Signal

Information Signal

Frequency Modulated
(FM) Signal

Phase Modulated
(PM) Signal

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2. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

• Definition: FM is the process of changing the frequency

of analog carrier signal in proportion with the amplitude
of the analog information signal.

• In FM, the carrier amplitude and phase remains constant

while the carrier frequency is varied by the modulating
signal.

• The amount of carrier frequency changes is proportional

to the amplitude of the information signal. As the
modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier
frequency increases and vice versa.

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2. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

vc(t)  Vc sin 2πfct

vm(t)  Vm sin 2πfmt

vFM (t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mf Sin2fmt ]

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2. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

• This modulation is perform by a circuit called FM

Modulator as shown in Figure 2.3 below.

Figure 2.3: FM Modulator

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3. PHASE MODULATION (PM)

• Definition
PM is the process of changing the phase of
analog carrier signal in proportion with the
amplitude of the information signal
• In PM, the carrier amplitude and frequency
remains constant while the carrier phase is
varied by the modulating signal.
• As the modulating signal amplitude increases,
the carrier phase increases and vice versa.

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3. PHASE MODULATION (PM)

vc(t)  Vc sin 2πfct

vm(t)  Vm sin 2πfmt

Phase Modulated Signal

vPM (t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mp Sin2fmt ]
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WAVEFORM & MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION

vm(t)  Vm sin 2πfmt

vc(t)  Vc sin 2πfct

vAM(t)  (VcSin2πfct)(1  mSin2πfmt)

vFM (t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mf Sin2fmt ]

vPM (t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mpSin2fmt ]

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 COMPARISON OF FM AND PM

Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

• the phase of the carrier • the frequency of the carrier
waveform varies with the waveform varies with the
information signal. information signal.

• Equation: • Equation:
m(t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mp Cos2fmt ] m(t)  Vc Cos[2πfct  mf Sin2fmt ]

from equation m(t )  Vc cos[2f c t   (t )]

• By varying the phase, θ • By varying the frequency, fc

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2.3 Understand digital information in
communication system
At the end of this learning session, student
should be able to explain :
- The difference between digital radio and digital
transmission.
- Digital communication block diagram
- Advantages of the digital communication
compares to analog modulation.

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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• The term Digital Communication covers a broad range of

communication techniques including digital transmission
and digital radio.
• Digital transmission is a true digital system where
digital signals are transferred between two or more
points in a communication system.

• Digital signals could be a binary digit (bit 0 and bit 1) or

other form of discrete-level digital pulses.

• With digital transmission, there is NO analog carrier and

the original source information may be in digital or analog
form.
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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• If the information signal is in analog forms, it must be

converted to digital pulses prior to digital
transmission and converted back to analog form at
the receive end.

• The analog signal is converted into digital signal by

using Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) technique.

• Since digital pulses CANNOT be propagated through a

wireless transmission medium (free space) ; therefore,
the digital transmission required physically medium such
as a metallic cable (twisted, coaxial cable) or an fibre
optic cable.
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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• Digital Radio is a transmittal of digitally-modulated

analog carrier signals between two or more points in a
communication system.

• With digital radio, the information signal and

demodulated signal are in digital form. While the
carrier signal and modulated signal are in analog
form.

• The digital pulses could be originated from

computer-generated data or digital transmission
system or digitally-encoded analog information
signal.
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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• In digital radio system, digital pulses

modulate the analog carrier signal to
produce digitally-modulated carrier signal in
analog form.

• Since the modulated signal is in analog form,

therefore the transmission medium could be a
wireless transmission medium(free space) or
physically facility (metallic or fiber optic cable).

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TYPES of DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Digital Transmission Digital Radio

Pulse Modulation Digital Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Delta
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude
Differential PCM Modulation (QAM)
Delta-Sigma (DPCM)
Modulation
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Basic Elements of Digital Communication
System

Information
Source Encoder Channel Encoder Digital Modulator
Source
ASK,FSK,PSK Signal
Analog, digital signal Message Symbol Code Symbol
(Bits) (Bits) Channel
ASK,FSK,PSK Signal

Information
Source Decoder Channel Decoder Digital Demodulator
Sink

Figure 2.4 : Basic Elements of Digital Communication System

Source Encoder
Digital Information
Textual Information
Analog Information Sampler Quantizer Encoder Channel Encoder

Figure 2.5 : Formatting Process

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Basic Elements of Digital Communication
System

1) Information Source - The source of information can be analog or

digital, e.g. Analog- audio, voice; Digital- teletype signal.
2) Source Encoder – to convert the information signal from source into
digital signals (serial bits) by formatting the signals (refer Figure 2.5)
and compressed that signal. Then, these bits are grouped to form
message symbols. For example: PCM process, Character Encoding
(ASCII code) process.
3) Channel Encoder – is used for error correction coding. It can reduces
the probability of error by introduces some redundancy in the message
symbols and transform it into code symbols(code words).
4) Digital Modulator - to convert the serial bits (digital waveform) into
electric signals (analog waveform) so that we can transmit them on
channel. For example ASK, FSK & PSK Modulation process.
41
Basic Elements of Digital Communication
System

5) Channel - The communication channel is the physical medium that

is used for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. In
wireless system, this channel consists of atmosphere. For telephony,
this channel is wired like twisted pair cable & optical fiber.
6) Digital Demodulator – the reverse process of modulation and
converts the electric signals back to the serial bits (code symbols).
7) Channel Decoder - to reconstruct the original serial bits(message
symbols) from the code symbols used by the channel encoder and
the redundancy contained in the received data. Example: Bit Error
Rate (BER) process.
8) Signal Decoder - to convert back the serial bits(message symbols)
into original source information signal.
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ADVANTAGES of DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

The advantages of digital transmission compared to analog

transmission are;
i. Noise Immunity - Digital signals are less susceptible than analog
signals to interference caused by noise.
ii. Reduction of errors - Errors caused by noise and interference
can be detected and corrected systematically.
iii. High security - Digital system more secure than analog system
because the system can be encoded digital data to a unique code
(data encryption) and data can only be understood by the sender
and receiver only.
iv. Digital circuit easier to be interfaced compare to analog circuits
(because there are two levels of digital signals only '1 'and '0').
v. Ease of processing and multiplexing.
vi. Inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively.
43
APPLICATION OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• ADC – Analog to Digital Converter

• DAC – Digital to Analog Converter
• MODEM – Modulator-Demodulator
• Digital Camera
• Digital Video
• Broadband digital subscriber lines (DSL)
• Telemetry
• Teleconferencing
• Compact Disk (CD)
• Hard Disk Drive
• Personal Communication System (PCS)
• Satellite Communication System
44
2.4 Understand and apply M-ary encoding

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain and solve the problem:
- M-ary encoding

45
M-ARY ENCODING

46
M-ary CODING
• M-ary is a term derived from the word binary.

• M = represents a digit that corresponds to the

number of conditions or levels or combinations
possible for a given number of binary variables
(n).

• For example, a digital signal with 4 possible

conditions (either voltages, levels, frequencies,
phases and so on) is an M-ary system where
M = 4.

47
M-ary CODING
• The number of conditions, M possible with n bits is
expressed mathematically as;
M  2n
Where, n = number of bits
M = number of conditions, or levels, or combinations
possible with n bits

• The number of bits,n that necessary to produce a

given number of conditions, M is expressed
mathematically as;

n  log 2 M
48
M-ary CODING
Example 2.1
For example, with n = 1 bit, only 21 = 2 conditions are
possible. With two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible.
With three bits, 23 = 8 conditions are possible, and so on.

Example 2.2
A digital signal has two levels. How many bits are needed
per level? Draw that digital signals.

Example 2.3
A digital signal has four levels. How many bits are needed
per level? Draw that digital signals.
49
M-ary CODING
Solution example 2.2
n  log 2 M number of levels, M = 2
n  log 2(2) number of bits per level, n = 1 bit
log 2
n  1 bit
log 2

50
M-ary CODING
Solution example 2.3
n  log 2(4) number of levels, M = 4
log 4 number of bits per level, n = 2 bits
n  2 bits
log 2

51
2.5 Know Pulse Modulation

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain:
- Pulse Modulation techniques
- Draw the diagram of Pulse Modulation
techniques (PWM, PPM, PAM and PCM)

52
PULSE MODULATION

53
PULSE MODULATION

• In Pulse Modulation, Information Signal is in

analog waveform. While Sampling signal is in
digital waveform. (there is NO carrier signal in
pulse modulation)

• This modulation is necessary to convert the analog

signal to digital signal for digital transmission.

• Usually used metallic cable & fiber optic cable.

Cannot use free space as channel.

54
PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUE

• Definition: Pulse Modulation(PM) is a process of

sampling the analog information signals into sampled
signal before converting those into digital signals.

• In Pulse Modulation the Information Signal is in

analog waveform. While Sampling signal is in digital
pulses waveform.

• The properties of sampling pulses signal such as

width, position and amplitude will be varied in
proportion with amplitude of information signal.

55
PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUE

• There are 4 predominant techniques for

Pulse Modulation :
a) Pulse Width/Duration Modulation
(PWM @ PDM)
Analog PM
b) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) (sampling only)

c) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

d) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Digital PM

56
Figure 3.3 : Pulse Modulation Pulse Modulation
Technique
Information signal

Sampling Pulses

PWM

PPM

PAM
(Single Polarity/Flat Top Sampling)

PCM
57
PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUE
• PWM - the width of the pulses is varied proportional to the analog
amplitude information signal.
(The higher amplitude of Information signal, the wider of pulse.)
• PPM – the position of the pulses is varied proportional to the analog
amplitude information signal.
(The higher amplitude of Information signal, the farther to the right
the pulse is positioned).
• PAM - the amplitude of the pulses is varied proportional to the analog
amplitude information signal.
(The higher amplitude of Information signal, the higher amplitude of
pulse).
• PCM – With PCM, the analog information signal is sampled into PAM
signal and then converted to a serial n-bit binary code for
transmission.
58
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

 Width (W) of pulses is varied proportional to the amplitude of

analog Information signal.
 Amplitude (A) and Position (P) of pulses are constant.
 The higher amplitude of Information signal, the wider of
Pulses.
59
PULSE POSITION MODULATION (PPM)

 Position (P) of pulses is varied proportional to the amplitude of

analog Information signal.
 Amplitude (A) and Width (W) of pulses are constant.
 The higher amplitude of Information signal, the farther to the
right the pulse is positioned.

60
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM)

Analog Information Signal

PAM

Sample pulses

 Amplitude (A) of pulses is varied proportional to the amplitude

of analog Information signal.
 Width (W) and Position (P) of pulses are constant.
 The higher amplitude of Information signal, the higher
amplitude of Pulses.

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PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUE

• PWM and PPM are used in special-purpose

communication systems, seldom used for commercial
digital transmission.

• PAM is used as an intermediate form of modulation with

PCM, PSK and QAM; seldom it is used by itself.

• Among all pulse modulation techniques, there are two

important digital pulse modulation techniques which are
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation
(DM).

62
DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION (DPM)

• In DPM, a code is used to represent the

amplitude of the samples that has been
divided into various levels.
• The types of DPM:
1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
2. Delta Modulation (DM)
3. Delta-Sigma Modulation

• The further sub-topic will discuss only the

PCM techniques in details.
63
2.6 Understand Pulse Code Modulation

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain and solve the problem:
- Pulse Code Modulation steps
- Sampling process
- Quantizing process
- Encoding process
- Know other types of PCM

64
PULSE CODE MODULATION

65
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• In digital transmission, any analog information data should be

changed into digital signal for the digital transmission.
• PCM is the only digitally encoded modulation technique that
is commonly used for digital transmission.
• The term Pulse Code Modulation is somewhat of a misnomer,
as it is not real a type of modulation but rather a form of
digitally coding analog signals.
• PWM, PPM, and PAM signals are digital signal (discrete-time
signal), but those signals does not represent in a single
binary digit (bits).
• Therefore, PCM technique is needed to convert the discrete
sampled signal(usually PAM) to serial bits.
66
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• Definition: PCM is a digital pulse modulation

technique to convert the analog signal to digital signal.

• The PCM technique is the conventional/basic digital

pulse modulation technique. However there are few
others type of PCM technique such as;
1. Delta Modulation PCM
2. Adaptive Delta Modulation PCM
3. Differential PCM (DPCM)
4. Adaptive Differential (ADPCM)

67
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

APPLICATION:
• In electronic communication circuit, the PCM technique is
applied at
– Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) device - in Coder
– Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) device - in Decoder
– In digital telephony Multiplexing (TDM-PCM)
– Digital PABX
– Digital Audio recording
– CD laser disks, etc.
• Figure 2.6 shows the PCM transmission block diagram.
Figure 2.7 shows the PCM Encoder(transmitter); while
Figure 2.8 shows the PCM Decoder(receiver).
68
Figure 2.6 Block Diagram of PCM - Full

(a) PCM Transmitter PAM

Analog Signal Analog-to-Digital converter

Bandpass Sampler &

Quantizer Encoder
Filter Hold

Sampling Pulses
Serial PCM code (bits)

(b) Transmission medium

Regenerative
Repeater

Analog Signal
Decoder & Lowpass
Hold Filter
(c) PCM Receiver

Digital-to-Analog converter PAM

69
PCM Block Diagram

Figure 2.6 shows a simplified block diagram of a simplex PCM

system:

1) Bandpass Filter – the bandpass filter limits the analog input

signal to a certain bandwidth (fmin to fmax) to enter the Sampler.
For example: the filter allows only human voice bandwidth,
300Hz - 3.4kHz to enter the Sampler circuit.
2) Sampler & Hold – Periodically samples the analog input
signal and convert the Sampling Pulses signal to a multilevel
sampled PAM signal.
3) Quantizer - Convert the sampled PAM signal to quantized
PAM signal by rounding off the amplitude of sampled signal to
quantization levels, L.

70
PCM Block Diagram

Figure 2.6 shows a simplified block diagram of a simplex PCM

system:

4) Encoder – convert the quantized PAM signal to a parallel code

number. Then, convert the code numbers to a serial binary
pulses (encoded words).
5) Repeater – Amplify and regenerate the weaken digital pulses
during transmission on transmission line.
6) Decoder & Hold – Convert back he digital pulses signal to
multilevel PAM signals.
7) Low pass Filter - to smooth the staircase amplitude of PAM
signals into an analog signal.

71
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal:

i. Sampling
ii. Quantizing
iii.Encoding

• Before sampling process, the information signal should be

filtered to limit the maximum information frequency (fmmax)
that can enter into the sampler as it affects the sampling rate
(fs).

• Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the signal, i.e

remove high frequency components that affect the signal
shape.
72
Figure 2.7 Block Diagram of PCM Encoder (Transmitter)

Information signal

Bandpass Filter

Sampler Quantizer Encoder

& Hold

Filtered signal
e.g : 300 – 3400Hz

fmmin fmmax

73
1. SAMPLING
• Definition: Sampling is a process where the information
signal (in analog signal) is sampled by sampling pulse signal
which is generated at certain sampling rate,fs.

• Sampling process will converts an analog signal (in

continuous-time signal) to a sampled signal (in discrete-
time signal) either in PAM, PWM or PPM.

• For PCM, the sampled signal is PAM signal.

• By this process, the amplitude of pulses signal is varied
proportional to the analog amplitude of information signal.

74
1. Sampling
Figure 2.9
• According to Figure 2.9, Analog
information signal is sampled
every TS seconds.
Info signal • Ts is referred to as the Sampling
Interval or Sampling Period.
• The amplitude of sampling pulse
signal is varied according to
amplitude of information signal
-TS 0 TS 2TS 3TS which produce a PAM signal.
Sampling Pulse Signal
• There are 3 methods of sampling
which are
i. Ideal Sampling
ii. Natural Sampling
iii. Flat-Top Sampling
-TS 0 TS 2TS PAM Signal
75
Figure 2.10 : Three different sampling methods for PCM

Ts

Ts

76
1. SAMPLING
• Ideal Sampling – the analog information signal is sampled
instantaneously by pulses. This sampling is not practical
and cannot be easily implemented.

• Natural Sampling – The more practical sampling which is

performed by high-speed switching circuits as shown in
Figure 2.11.

• Flat-Top Sampling – The simplest and the most popular

sampling method which is performed by Sample-and-
Hold circuit as shown in Figure 2.12. However, this circuit
creates a flat-top (staircase) sampled signal.

77
1. SAMPLING
Sample Switch

fm fs

Figure 2.11: Natural Sampling

• When the pulse is generated,

the switch will CLOSED and the
amplitude of information signal
will be produced.
• When there is no pulse, the
switch will OPEN and there is
no output will produce. Figure 2.12: Flat-top Sampling

78
1. SAMPLING

• Ts is referred to as the Sampling Interval or Sampling Period.

• fs = 1/Ts is called the Sampling Rate or Sampling Frequency.
• From Figure 2.13, it could be seen that the higher the
sampling rate, fs the smaller sampling interval, Ts, the closer
the recovered signal approaches the original signal.
• Ideally, an infinite sampling rate would be desirable in terms
of reproducing the original signal but it is not practical due to
the bandwidth limitation.
So, what minimum Sampling Rate, fs is required to
recover the original signal?

79
Figure 2.11 : Three different Sampling Rate for PCM

The recovered Signal

could be known by
connecting all the
dotted-amplitudes of
PAM signal.

Original
Information
Signal is
recovered.

Original
Information
Signal is NOT
recovered.

80
SAMPLING THEOREM
According to the Nyquist Sampling theorem; to reconstruct the
original signal, the sampling rate must be at least (minimum)
two times the highest frequency contained in the info signal.

fs ≥ 2fm(max)

EXAMPLE 2.4 :
Given the bandwidth of the telephone lines signal is 300 to 3400 Hz.
Determine the minimum sampling rate that suitable for sampling that signal
and sampling interval required.

ANSWER :
fs = 2fm(max) = 2 ( 3400Hz) = 6800 Hz @ 6800 samples/s
Ts = 1/ fs = 1/6800Hz = 0.147ms
81
SAMPLING THEOREM
EXAMPLE 2.5 :
• For an intuitive example of the Nyquist Theorem, let us sample a
simple sine wave at three sampling rates:
i) fs = 2fm (Nyquist rate),
ii) fs = 2(2fm) (2 times the Nyquist rate), and
iii) fs = ½(2fm) (one-half the Nyquist rate).
ANSWER:
From Figure 2.12 below;
• For part (a) It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create
a good approximation of the original sine wave
• Oversampling in part (b) can also create the same approximation, but it
is redundant and unnecessary.
• Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a signal that
looks like the original sine wave.
82
Figure 2.12 : Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

Original Signal Reconstruct Signal

83
Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem
Claude Shannon – father of information theory

Harry Nyquist
84
2. QUANTIZATION
• Definition: Quantization is a process rounding off the amplitudes
of sampled (PAM) signal to a countable number of quantization
levels.
• Analog signal has an infinite (uncountable) number of amplitude
possibilities. By using the quantization process, the amplitudes of
sampled PAM signal is rounding off to a finite(countable) set of
quantization levels, L.
• The number of amplitude levels, L for the quantization depend on
the number of bits, n used to code the signal.

• It use M-ary formula to determine the number of quantization

levels, L. n = number of bits per level
L2 n
L = number of finite quantization level
85
2. QUANTIZATION
• For example, if 3 bits is used to code the signal, therefore the
number of quantization levels, L are;
L  2 n  23
L  8 levels

• The more levels, L used means that an analog signal can be

described more accurate during signal recovery at receiver.

• This is because the more number of bits (n) and quantization

level (L) are used, the more quantization error (Qe) could be
reduced and the more accurate the recovery original signal.

• However, a PCM code could have only 8 bits maximum which

equates to only L= 28 or 256 levels.
86
2. QUANTIZATION

Code Quantized signal = 3.5V Sampled signal = 3.1V

number

7 ∆ = Step Size / Quantization

Interval / Resolution /
Quantum
6
∆ = 2 Vmax/L
5

1
Original
0 analog
Mid-point signal
Figure 2.13: Quantization 87
2. QUANTIZATION

• According to Figure 2.13 above, we assumed that the amplitude

of sampled PAM signal is confined between two limits: Vmax = 4V
and Vmin = -4V.
• The amplitude values of sampled PAM signal are infinite
between these two limits. So, we need to map the infinite
amplitude values onto a finite set of known values (L zone).
• This is achieved by dividing the distance between Vmax and Vmin
into L zones, each of height of step size, ∆.
• Since we want to use 3 bit PCM code (n=3), so the Quantization
Level is; L = 2n
L = 23 = 8 level
• Step size, ∆ = 2 Vmax/L = 2(4)/8 = 1V
88
2. QUANTIZATION

• The 8 zones are: -4V to -3V, -3V to -2V, -2V to -1V, -1V to 0V,
0V to 1V, 1V to 2V, 2V to 3V, and 3V to 4V.

• The midpoints are: -3.5V, -2.5V, -1.5V, -0.5V, 0.5V, 1.5V, 2.5V, and
3.5V.
• This midpoint is called quantization level, L. The midpoint of
each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1 quantization levels.
• Each sampled signal’s amplitude is quantized (rounding-off) to
the midpoint of the interval (quantization level) in which it lies.
• For example in Figure 2.13 above, the second sample has
sampled amplitude value of 3.1V. After quantization, the
sampled amplitude value is quantized to 3.5V level.
89
2. QUANTIZATION
• There are two types of Quantizing method which are;
i. Uniform Quantization – uniform step size, ∆
ii. Non-uniform Quantization – non-uniform step size, ∆
• The previous example is Uniform quantization where the step size
is uniform for each zone.
• However, a non-uniform quantization is commonly used because
the uniform quantization is not efficient for a signal that has
smaller amplitude.
• For example, in speech communication (voice signal), the signal is
found have more smaller amplitudes rather than larger amplitudes
• Thus, uniform quantization scheme is wasteful for speech signals
because many of quantization levels, L are rarely used. The non-
uniform quantizing method is more suitable because the step size
could be adjusted depends on the amplitude of signal (smaller step
size for lower amplitude and larger for higher amplitude).
90
Quantization Error (Qe)
• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error because
Quantization is an approximation process.
• The difference between sampled and quantized value is referred
as the quantization error (Qe).
Qe  Quantized value - Sampled value (V)

• For example, for second sample in Figure 2.13, the sampled

value is 3.1V, while the quantize value is 3.5V. So;
Qe = quantized value – sampled value
= 3.5V – 3.1 = 0.4V
• Quantization error (Qe) is also called Quantization noise (Qn)
where the maximum error is Qe = ± ∆/2 for Uniform
Quantization.
91
Signal to Quantization Noise Power Ratio
(SQR)
• The Signal-to-Quantization Noise Power Ratio (SQR) is defined by
the equation:

SQR(dB)  6.02n  1.76 dB n = number of bits

Example 2.6: What is the SQR in the Figure 2.13?

Solution:
From the Figure 2.13, the number of quantization level, L = 8. Then
the number of bit is; log 8
n  log 2 L  log 2 8   3bits
log 2
Since, number of bits is 3, so the SQR is
SQR(dB)  6.02(3)  1.76  19.82dB
92
Qe, SQR and BIT RATE

• From the SQR equation, it could be seen that the values of

SQR is depends on the number of bits, n.

• The higher number of bits, the higher value of SQR could be

achieved, the more quantization error could be reduces,
and the more accurate recovery signal could be achieved.
• This is because when the number of bit,n is increased, the
number of quantization level, L also increase and the step
size, ∆ will become smaller.
• When the step size become smaller, the amplitude difference
(gap) between sampled signal and quantized signal could be
minimized (or maybe no gap) which results in smaller errors.

93
Qe, SQR and BIT RATE
• Thus, the recovery original signal is more accurate when
the quantization errors are reduced.
• In conclusion, the quality of sampled PAM signal can be
improved by using a PCM code with more bits, n. BUT, the
more bits will introduce higher bit rate.
• Bit Rate is the number of bits transmitted during one
second and is expressed in bits per second (bps).
• The Bit Rate for PCM could be found from the formula;
Bit Rate = fS x n fS = sampling rate
n = number of bits per sample

94
BIT RATE

EXAMPLE 2.7
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

SOLUTION Example 2.7

The human voice normally contains frequencies from 300 to
3.4kHz. So, the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as
follows;
Sampling Rate, fS = 2fmmax = 2 x 3.4kHz = 6800 samples/s
Bit Rate = fS x n = 6800 x 8 bits = 54400 bps = 54.4kbps

95
3. ENCODING
• Definition : Encoding is a process of translating the quantized
signal into a decimal code number. Then this decimal code
number is converted to its representative binary sequence.

• The number of bits, n for each level of code number depends

on the number of quantization level, L used to quantize the
samples which can be determined using M-ary formula.
n  log 2 L

• The quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed

in the same circuit which is called analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).

96
3. ENCODING
• The Decimal Code Number for each quantization level is
converted to its representative binary sequence by using
Binary Code or Grey Code or Folded Binary Code.
Code Number Binary Code Gray Code
7 111 110
6 110 111
5 101 101
4 100 100
3 011 000
2 010 001
1 001 011
0 000 010
• The essential features of binary PCM are shown in Figure 2.14

97
3. ENCODING
Binary Quantized signal Sampled signal
code
111

110

101

100

011

010

001

000

Figure 2.14

98
3. ENCODING
• From figure 2.14 above, we assign the decimal code
number 0 to the level -3.5V, the code number 1 to level -
2.5V, and so on until level +3.5V.

• Each decimal code number (0 - 7) has its own 3 bits

binary code representation, ranging from 000 for code
number 0 to 111 for code number 7.

• Therefore, the binary sequences (digital signal) that

produce from PCM are
011 111 101 001 000.

99
Example 2.8
Encode the following quantized signal and find the
quantization error for each samples.

4V
3.94
3.24
3V
2.2
2V
1.5
1V

0V
-1.2
-1V
-1.22 -1.1
-1.88
-1.88
-2V
-2.26
-3V

-4V

Figure 2.15
100
Solution Example 2.8

3.5V 3.94
3.24
2.5V 2.2

1.5V 1.5

0.5V
-0.5V
-1.2
-1.5V -1.22 -1.1
-1.88
-2.5V -2.26

-0.5V

-0.28
EXERCISE
Q. Encode the following Quantized signal

step size is
distributed evenly
Solution:
No. of level, L = 16
Therefore, no. of bits
for each level is
n = log2 L
n = log2 (16)
n = 4 bits

Figure 2.16
102
PCM DECODER
• According to Figure 2.8, to recover an analog signal from
a digitized signal we follow the following steps:
1. We use a decoder and hold circuit that holds the
amplitude value of a pulse till the next pulse
arrives. This will produce a staircase PAM signal.

2. We pass this PAM signal through a low pass filter

which has the same cutoff frequency as the
original information signal at sender. The filter will
smooth the staircase amplitude of PAM signals into
an analog signal.

4.103
Figure 2.8 Block Diagram of PCM Decoder (Receiver)

PAM signal

Decoder
& Hold

104
2.7 Know and understand Digital Modulation

At the end of this learning session, student

should be able to explain :
- Digital Modulation techniques

105
DIGITAL MODULATION

106
DIGITAL MODULATION

• Digital Signal cannot be transmitted through free

space (wireless) medium but Analog signal does.

• Therefore, digital data needs to be converted into

analog signal by doing the Digital Modulation
techniques.

• Digital Modulation is the process of changing one of

the characteristics of an analog carrier signal
based on the information in digital data.

• A carrier signal(fc) performs the function of

transporting the digital data in an analog waveform.

107
Figure 2.19 Digital-to-analog conversion

108
TYPES of DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Digital Transmission Digital Radio

Pulse Modulation Digital Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Delta
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Modulation
Quadrature Amplitude
Differential PCM Modulation (QAM)
Delta-Sigma (DPCM)
Modulation
109
Figure 2.20 Types of Digital Modulation

Digital Modulation

110
DIGITAL MODULATION

In Digital Modulation, Information Signal is in digital

waveform; while Carrier signal is in analog waveform.
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) - the amplitude (Vp)
of the analog carrier signal is varied proportional to
the digital information signal.
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) - the frequency (f) of
the analog carrier signal is varied proportional to
the digital information signal.
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - the phase (Ɵ) of the
analog carrier is varied proportional to the digital
information signal.
111
112
 Digital Modulation Techniques

Carrier signal
fC

Data

ASK

f0 f1

FSK

PSK

Figure 3.20 113

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• ASK is the simplest digital modulation techniques.

• Also called Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM) or On-Off Keying
(OOK).
• ASK is a process where the binary information signal directly
modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.
• ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only
two output amplitudes possible. Both frequency and phase remain
constant.
• When the binary data is logic ‘1’, the carrier signal has the constant
amplitude (Vp = A cosωct). When the data is logic ‘0’, the carrier
signal has no amplitude (Vp=0V).
• Whenever the binary input is ‘high’ (logic 1), the output of carrier is a
constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal. While, when the
binary input is ‘low’ (logic 0), the carrier is off.
114
Figure 2.21: Binary Amplitude Shift Keying

115
Figure 2.22: Implementation of binary ASK

116
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• FSK is another relatively simple, low-performance type of digital

modulation.

• FSK is a form of angle modulated, constant-amplitude similar to

standard FM except the information signal is a binary signal that
varies between two discrete voltage levels.

• Sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK).

• With FSK, the carrier centre frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up

and down in the frequency domain by the binary input as shown in
above figure 3.20.

• As the binary input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice
versa, the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: logic 1 -
frequency (f1) and logic 0 - frequency (f0).
117
Figure 2.23: Binary Frequency Shift Keying

118
Figure 2.24: Implementation of binary FSK

119
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• PSK is another form of angle-modulated, constant-

amplitude digital modulation.
• PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme
• Similar to conventional PM except with PSK the input is a
binary digital signal and there are a limited number of
output phase possible.
• The input binary information is encoded into groups of bits
before modulates the carrier.
• A group has n bits (n = 1….12).
• The number of output phases is defined by M = 2n.

120
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)….cont

• The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying

(BPSK) where n=1 and M=2.
• Therefore two phases are possible (21 = 2) for the
carrier which are logic ‘1’ and logic ‘0’.
• One phase represents a logic ‘1’ and other phase
represents logic ‘0’.
• As the input digital signal changes (i.e. from a 1 to a 0 or
from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts
between two angles that are separated by 180º as
shown on above figure.

121
Figure 2.25: Binary Phase Shift Keying

122
Figure 2.26 Implementation of BPSK

123
 REFERENCES
• Wayne T. (2004). Electronic Communication Systems:
Fundamentals Through Advance (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN-
10: 0130453501 or ISBN-13: 9780130453501

• M. Forouzan, B.A. (2012). Data Communications and

Networking (5th ed). Mc Graw Hill. (ISBN: 978-0-07-131586-9)

• Hwei Hsu (2002). Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

Analog and Digital Communications (2nd ed). McGraw-Hills.
ISBN-10: 0071402284. ISBN-13: 978-0071402286

• Miller, Gary M. (2008). Modern Electronic Communication (9th

ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0-13-225113-2.

124