3.protective Relaying

Electrical Power System – II 3.
1 Protective relaying
3. PROTECTIVE RELAYING
SYLLABUS
3.1 Requirements – relay time, related terms
3.2 Classification – Electromagnetic attraction, induction, static, µP based relays
3.3 Protective transformers,
(No numerical on above topic)
3.4 Over current relay – Time current characteristics
3.5 Static over current relays
3.6 µP based over current relays
3.7 Distance relaying – Principle, static, µP based
3.8 Directional relay
3.9 Differential relay
(Simple numerical on relay setting)
OBJECTIVES
❖ To understand requirement of protective relaying in protection system.
❖ To classify the relays.
❖ To study current transformers and potential transformers used in protection system.
❖ To study over current relay for its time current characteristics.
❖ To compare static relays with electromagnetic relays.
❖ To study µP based over current relay, distance relay and directional relay.
❖ To solve simple numerical on relay setting.

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Electrical Power System – II 3.2 Protective relaying
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission lines,

distribution lines etc. In the every-day operation of a power system, there is possibility of
disturbances in normal operation and the occurrence of faults in the separate parts of power
system equipment.
The most common form of disturbance in normal operation of electrical equipment
is overloading due to which the flow of current exceeds rated value.
The most severe and common form of faults is the short circuits. Power system en-
gineers usually call short circuits faults. Strictly speaking, the word ‘fault’ simply means a
‘defect’.
Some defects other than short-circuits are also called as faults. For instance, the
failure of electric current conducting path due to a break in an electrical conductor is a type
of fault.
As a rule, the short circuit current considerably exceeds the rated current of the af-
fected part and can disturb the normal operation of an electrical power system. The short
circuit current leads to damage of the equipment or the circuit element in which it devel-
ops. It also causes a considerable drop in voltage and frequency. The interconnection and
interdependence existing between the various elements of an electric power system needs
protective devices and arrangements that will automatically and very quickly disconnect
the faulty section from healthy section to keep normal operation or initiate an alarm of dis-
turbance in normal operating conditions.
In the power system, these functions are performed by systems of protective relays.
The term protective relaying applies to the arrangement of devices in schemes capable of
response to the occurrence of a fault or a disturbance in normal operating condition in any
section of the electric power system and of automatically acting on disconnecting appa-
ratus or an alarm device. In other words, protective relaying senses faults or the disturb-
ances in normal operating conditions in any part or section of the electric power system
and isolates that part or section from the healthy system, or gives an alarm.
3.2 REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING:
The principal function of protective relaying is to isolate promptly any element of
the power system, when it under goes a short circuit or starts operating abnormally. In or-
der that the protective relaying system may perform its principal function satisfactorily, it
should have the following qualities.
a] Selectivity and discrimination
b] Quickness of action or fastness of operation
c] Sensitivity, power consumption
d] Reliability
e] Stability
f] Simplicity and
g] Economy
A] Selectivity and Discrimination:
1) Selectivity is the quality of a protective relaying by which it is able to ‘select’
(search out) correctly the faulty part of the system and isolate it from the healthy part of
the system, by tripping the nearest circuit breaker. Or
Selectivity is the ability of a relay to select the faulty part of the system and isolate
it from the remaining healthy part of the system with the help of either circuit breaker or
contactor.
2) Discrimination is the quality of relay due to which it distinguishes between the
following:
1] Normal condition and abnormal condition.
2] Abnormal condition within protective zone and abnormal condition elsewhere
Also, it should be able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protec-
tion or outside the zone. The quality, ‘Discrimination’, enables the protective relaying to
distinguish between
1] Normal and abnormal condition
2] Abnormal condition within its zone of protection
3] Abnormal condition outside its zone of protection.
Bus bar
Bus bar
CB-1 CB-2
G
ISC ISC ISC
Bus bar A Bus bar B CB-3 Fault
Assuming load currents of healthy feeder very small c

ISC = Short Circuit c
Current
Figure 3.1 Illustrating Selectivity and Discrimination
The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and a transient condi-
tion like power surges of magnetising inrush current of a transformer. The magnetising in-
rush current of a transformer may be 5 to 7 times the full load current and hence for a large
transforms it is comparable with a fault current.
If fault occurs at point F as shown in fig 3.1, the short circuit current (ISC) will flow
through the circuit breakers CB-l, CB-2 and CB-3. So only circuit breaker CB-3 should
operate. Then we say that the protective relaying is having selectivity.
B] Reliability:
‘It means ‘trust – worthiness’.
The protective relaying should be reliable in its operation i.e. it should not fail to
operate in the event of faults in its protected zone. It should not operate unnecessarily.
The basic requirement of reliable protection is reliability of each component includ-
ing C.B. relays, CT’S, P.T.S, trip circuit, battery system, cables etc.
The protective relaying should operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of
protection. In other words, it should not fail to operate in the event of faults in its zone of
protection. The failure of protective relaying may be due to failure or fault in the compo-
nent or element of protective relay systems. Its components are the protective relay, C.T.,
P.T., battery, circuit breakers, etc. To obtain a high degree of reliability, greater care should
be given to the design, testing, installation, and maintenance of the various elements of the
protective system. The relay contact material, contact pressure is also very important as-
pect as far as, reliability is considered. A typical range of reliability of a protective system
is 98 % to 99 % in the Soviet Union and in other countries it is 80 % to 90 %.
C] Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ability of relay system to operate when the operating current or
fault current just exceeds its preset value called as pick-up current. Or
It is the ability of the relay to respond and operate with the low value of actuating
quantity.
It is a measure of minimum volt – ampere required for input for necessary to oper-
ate relay. The relay should not operate when the current in the relay coil is below its pick-
up value. Thus, sensitivity of a protective relaying refers to the smallest value of actuating
quantity at which the protective relay starts acting in relation with the minimum value of
fault current.
Sensitivity of a protective system is expressed by a sensitivity factor, KS.
It is required that the sensitivity factor should not be less than 1.5 to 2 in value.
D] Quickness of Action or Fastness of Operation:
The relay system should be very quick so that the faulty section can be disconnect-
ed quickly. For this, relay time and fault clearing time should be as small as possible.
1] Relay time is the time between the instant of occurrence of fault and the instant
of closure of relay contacts, and
2] The fault clearing time is the time between the instant of fault occurrence and in-
stant of final are interruption in circuit breaker.
(Speed and Time of operation) Quick disconnection on occurrence of a short circuit
decreases the amount of damage, helps maintaining the stability of machines operating in
parallel ensures normal operating conditions in the healthy section of the system, etc. Also,
it decreases the possibility of spreading of a fault into the power system. Therefore, a pro-
tective system should be fast enough to remove the faulty element of the system as quickly
as possible. Though fast fault clearing is desirable, time lag is purposely provided in many
protective systems for the following purposes.
a] To distinguish between main and back up protection.
b] To prevent the operation of relay during transients, motor-starting currents, load
permissible fluctuations etc.
E] Stability:
It is the quality of a protective system by virtue of which the protective system re-
mains inoperative under the specified conditions such as system disturbance, through
faults, transients, momentary faults etc. or
Stability is defined as the quality of protective system due to which it will not oper-
ate under the specified conditions such as system disturbance, through faults, transients,
momentary faults etc.
i.e. It does not operate and remains stable under certain specified conditions such
as system disturbances, through faults (i.e. faults outside its zone of protection), transients
etc.
In many cases, time delay, biasing, filter circuits, etc are provided to make the pro-
tective system stable under certain disturbances
F] Simplicity:
The protective relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Reliability is very closely related to simplicity. If the protective system is simpler, there
will be greater reliability.
G] Economy:
The economic aspect is the most important factor in the choice of a particular pro-
tection scheme. An ideal scheme of protection is not economically justified. As a rule, the
cost of protective scheme should be about 1% of the total cost of equipment to be protect-
ed, but should not be more than 5 % of the total cost of the equipment to be protected.
However, when the equipment to be protected has got utmost importance (i.e. generators,
main transmission lines, etc), the cost of protective equipment does not matter to increase
reliability.
Nowadays micro-processor-based protective relays are used. The cost of protective
scheme with microprocessors is about 15 times more than those without microprocessors.
If the computer performs other control functions in addition to protection, then the
microprocessor based protective scheme is economical otherwise not.
3.3 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
A] Relay:
A relay is an automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit (trip circuit
or alarm circuit etc) is controlled (opened or closed) with a change in the same or another
electrical circuit. Relays are the essential components of a protective relaying.
B] Protective Relay:
A protective relay is an automatic device which detects an abnormal condition (any
disturbance or fault) in an electrical circuit and initiates the operation of a circuit breaker
to isolate the faulty element of the system. In some cases, it may give an alarm or some vis-
ible indication to watchful operator.
Protective relays detect the abnormal conditions in electrical circuits by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities (e.g. current, voltage, frequency, impedance, phase an-
gle etc) which are different under normal and fault conditions. After detecting the fault, the
relay operates to close the trip circuit of the circuit breaker which results in the opening of
the circuit breaker contacts and hence in the disconnection of the faulty part of the circuit
system.
3.4 FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING:
a] To give an alarm or to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker so as to disconnect
any element of power system when it undergoes short circuit or it starts operating abnor-
mally.
b] To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to minimise the damage
to the faulty part.
c] To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to improve the system
stability and service continuity i.e. to prevent the total failure of the power system.
d] To disconnect the part which starts operating abnormally so as to prevent the
subsequent faults.
e] To provide an indication of the type of fault which has occurred.

f] To locate the fault or the area in which the fault has occurred.
g] To localise the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from the healthy
part causing least disturbance to the healthy system.
It should be noted that faults can not be avoided completely by protective relays,
but they can be minimised. Protective relaying plays an important role in minimising the
faults and the damage at the occurrence of faults. The service continuity can be improved
by better protective relay. Therefore, the protective relaying is an important aspect of pow-
er system design and that of any equipment in it.
Terms Used in Protective Relaying:
A] Protective relay:
A protective relay is an electrical relay used for protection of electrical equipments.
B] Measuring relay:
This type of relays operates at predetermine value of operating quantity.
C] Operating force:
It is force that tends to close the contacts of relay.
D] Restraining force:
It is a force that opposes the operating force.
E] Pick-up:
It is the minimum current (or voltage) at which relay operates.
F] Reset or drop-out:
The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to
its original position.
G] Flag, indicator, target:
It is sign, which shows operation of relay.
H] Instantaneous relay:
These are the relays having operating time less than 0.1 sec. i.e. fast relays have no
intentional time lag.
I] Over current relay:
The relay which operates at a pre-set value of current, which is more than the full-
load current of equipment, machine etc, this type of relays may have intentional time lag.
J] Inverse definite minimum time relay:
This is the relay which has inverse characteristic of current verses time. i.e. time of
operation is reduced when fault current increases and vice-versa. But the relays takes a
specified minimum time for its operation.
K] Directional relay:
This is a relay which operates only when the direction of current is reversed or the
phase angle of the current have a displacement more than the desired value.
L] Differential relay:
It is a relay which responds to the vector difference between two (or more) similar
quantities.
M] Impedance relay:
V 
It is a relay which senses the ratio  = Z  and operates accordingly.
I 
N] Distance relay:
In such type of relay, the operation is based on the measurement of ratio V/I. It
gives the measurement of distance between relay location and fault location.
O] Electromechanical relay:
It is a conventional relay in which movable parts perform the measurement.
P] Biased relay:
It is the relay which characteristic is modified by additional mechanical or elec-
tromagnetic provision such as a bias-coil, magnet etc.
Q] Static relay:
It is the relay in which, relay measurements or comparision is performed by sta-
tionary (static) circuit.
R] Relaying Systems:
The complete relaying of a system is divided into following groups:

1] Primary relaying
2] Secondary relaying
3] Relaying for other abnormal conditions
1] Primary relaying:
It is the first line of detection (protection) against short-circuit or insulation failure
etc.
2] Secondary relaying or back up relaying:
These are the relays which operate when the primary relays fail to operate.
3] Relays for other abnormal conditions:
This type of relaying includes relays for other than short circuit conditions which
vary from situation to situation.
3.5 OVER CURRENT RELAYING:
Following types of relays can be used for over-current relaying systems:
a] Indirect heated thermal relay
b] Induction type relay
c] Induction cup relay
d] Overload inverse time relay
e] Attracted armature type
f] Permanent magnet moving coil relay
g] Balanced beam type relay
We will study the constructional details and operating principles of these relays in
brief.
3.6 BASIC RELAYS:
D.C. or A.C. current actuates most of the relays used in the power system and/or
voltage supplied by current and voltage transformers connected in different combinations
to the system element to be protected. They detect the fault and close the trip circuit of a
circuit breaker to cause the opening of the circuit breaker. Hence the faulty section is dis-
connected from the healthy system.
Most of the relays in the power system are of electro-mechanical type. They work
on the following two main operating principles.
a] Electromagnetic attraction (actuated by D.C. or A. C. quantities)
b] Electromagnetic induction (actuated by A. C. quantities only) Thus, the basic re-
lays can be classified as:
1] Electromagnetic attraction type and
2] Electromagnetic induction type
A] Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays: These are simplest type of relays.
The important types of electromagnetic attraction type relays are:
1] Attracted armature type relays,
2] Plunger type or solenoid type relays,
3] Balanced beam type relays.
1] Attracted armature type relay:
Relay
To trip circuit
contact
Electromagnet
Coil Armature
Figure 3.2 Hinged Armature Type Relay
These types of relays have a coil or an electromagnet energised by coil. The coil is
actuated by the operating quantity which may be proportional to circuit current or voltage.
Fig. 3.2 shows a hinged armature type relay.
The coil is energised by an operating quantity proportional to the circuit current on

voltage. The operating quantity, current or voltage produces a magnetic field which in turn
produces an electromagnetic force. The force so produced is proportional to the square of
the flux in the air gap or the square of the actuating quantity. The actuating quantity of the
relay may be either A. C. or D.C. hence classified as A. C. relays or D.C. relays respective-
ly.
In the case of A. C. relays, as sinusoidal current is flowing through the coil, the
force of attraction is given by,
F = K i2 (neglecting saturation)
K ( I m  sin ωt )
2
=
K  I 2m ( sin ωt )
2
=
(∵2 sin2  = 1 – cos 2 )
 1 − cos 2 ωt 
= K  I2m  
 2 
K 2 K 2
=  Im − I m cos 2 ωt
2 2
From the above expression, it is obvious that the electromagnetic force, F, consists
of two components. One component is constant and. is equal to½ K I 2m . The other compo-
nent pulsates at double the frequency of the applied A.C. quantity. This may cause the ar-
mature to vibrate at double the frequency. Due to this, the relay produces a humming sound
and therefore becomes noisy. This difficulty is overcome by making the pole of the elec-
tromagnet of shaded construction or the electromagnet may be provided pith two coils, the
restraining force is provided by a spring.
The reset to pick-up ratio for attracted armature type relays can be high as 90 to
95 % for A.C. relays and 60 to 90 % for D.C. relays. The relay is an instantaneous relay.
The operating speed is very high. It is about 5 microseconds for modern relays. It is fester
than the induction disc and cup type relays. The attracted armature type relays are compact,
robust and reliable. They operate on both D.C. and A.C.
2] Solenoid type or Plunger type attraction relay:
Fig. 3.3 shows the schematic arrangement of a plunger type relay. In this type of a
relay, there is a solenoid, a movable iron plunger arranged as shown in the fig.3.3. The
plunger moves in and out of the solenoid to make and break the contacts. Under normal
operating conditions, the current through the solenoid is such that the contacts are open.
Spring
Relay To trip circuit

contact
Plunger
I
A.C. or D.C. current
Coil (solenoid )
Figure 3.3 Plunger Type Relay
When a fault occurs, the current through the solenoid becomes more than the pick
value which causes the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid, i.e., downwards. The down-
ward movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit of the circuit breaker, the circuit
breaker is operated and thus the faulty section is disconnected.
3] Balanced beam type relay:
It consists of a horizontal beam pivoted at its centre, with one armature attached
one of its sides. There are two coils as shown in fig. 3.4. Under normal operating condi-
tions, the current through the operating coil is such that the beam remains in horizontal po-
sition till the operating force becomes more than restraining force.
Compressed spring
Plunger Plunger To trip

I2 I1 circuit
Restraining
Operating
coil
coil
Figure 3.4 Balanced Beam Relay
When a fault occurs, the current in the operating coil becomes more than the pick
up value required to tilt the beam. i. e. attracted to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker to
disconnect the faulty section. The current in the operating coil gives operating force while
the current in the other coil gives restraining force. The beam is given slight mechanical
bias by means of a spring such that under normal conditions, the contacts are kept open.
In impedance balance relay, voltage and current energise the two coils.
Operating Principle:
The net torque is given by,
Net Torque, T = K1 I12 − K 2 I 22 (neglecting spring effect)
Where I1 = current in operating coil

I2 = current in restraining coil
K1 and K2 are constants.
When the relay is on the verge of operation, the net torque is zero, therefore,
0 = K1 I12 − K 2 I 22
 K1 I12 = K 2 I 22
2
I  K2
i. e.  1  =
 I2  K1
I1 K2
i. e. =
I2 K1
= constant
Fig. 3.5 shows the operating characteristic of the relay. It is an approximate straight
line. It is slightly curved for low currents due to the effect of spring.
Balanced beam relay is difficult to design over a wide range. It is so because the
force is proportional to I2.The relay is fast and instantaneous. The relay is largely replaced
by permanent magnet moving coil relay having better accuracy and lower VA burden. The
VA burden is of the order of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 VA for 0.1 - 0.6 ampere range.
Positive torque Ideal

region characteristics (dotted)
I1
Negative torque
Operating region
current
Operating
characteristics (thick)
(0, 0) I2 Restraining current
Figure 3.5 Operating Characteristics of Balanced Beam Relay
B] Electromagnetic Induction Type Relays:

Electromagnetic induction or simply induction relays are most widely used for pro-
tective relaying purposes involving only A.C. quantities. Induction relays operate on the
principle of the induction motor. The relays are actuated by A.C. quantities only. They do
not operate on D.C. quantities and hence they are not used with D.C. quantities, owing to
the principle of operation. In such relays, Torque is produced when one alternating flux re-
acts with eddy currents induced in a disc called rotor, by another alternating flux of the
same frequency but displaced in time and space. In other words, the torque in these relays
is produced by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the eddy currents induced
in the disc by the other. Hence, an induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted alumini-
um disc placed in two alternating magnetic fields.
There are two types of construction of induction relays as:
1] The shaded pole type and
2] The watthour - metric type.
1] Shaded-pole type induction disc relay:
Figure 3.6 shows the general arrangement of shaded-pole structure. It consists of a
pivoted aluminium disc, which rotates in the air gap of an electromagnet shown in fig 3.6.
One-half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shad-
ing ring or shading band.
When it is actuated by A.C. current, the two rings have eddy currents induced in
them by the alternating flux of the electromagnet. The magnetic flux set up by these in-
duced currents cause the flux in the flux in the portion of the iron surrounded by the shad-
ing rings to lag in phase by  (40 to 50) behind the flux in the unshaded portion of the
shaded poles. The interaction of the two fluxes differing in phase produces the necessary
torque to rotate the disc. The torque is proportional to the product of the two fluxes.
Shaded pole
I
Shaded portion
S U Unshaded portion
N Actuating
Disc (Aluminium) current
S
Brake magnet Shading ring
Figure. 3.6 Shaded Pole Type Inductor Disc Relay
i.e. T  S u sin 
If S and u are assumed to be proportional to the current, I in relay coil, then,
T  I2 sin 
Fig. 3.7 shows the construction which is actually used in practice.
Disc P
Relay coil
N
Disc N
S
Shading Current setting arrangement

Brake ring
magnet
Figure 3.7 Construction in Practice for Shaded Pole Type relay
2] Watthour-meter type induction - disc relay:

This type of construction is employed in watt-hour meters (energy meters) and
hence the name of the relay of this type is watt-hour-meter type induction - disc re-
lay.Fig.3.8 shows the general arrangement of this type of relay.
It consists of two electromagnets (upper and lower). A pivoted aluminium disc is

arranged between the poles of the two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries
two windings primary and secondary windings. The primary winding carries the relay cur-
rent I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the winding over the lower magnet as
shown in fig. 3.8
Upper magnet
I1 
Primary winding
I2
To trip circuit
Aluminium disc
 Lower magnet
Figure 3.8 Watthourmeter Type Induction Disc Relay
The current, I1, in the primary winding induces e.m.f. (by transformer action) in the
secondary. Due to this, e.m.f. induced in the secondary, a current I2 is circulated in it. The
currents I1 and I2 produce alternating fluxes 1 and 2 respectively. Each flux cuts the alu-
minium disc. The two fluxes 1 and 2 differ in phase by an angle. The two fluxes pro-
duce the driving torque in the disc which is proportional to 12 sin.
An important feature of watt-hour - meter type relay is that opening or closing the
secondary winding circuit can control its operation. If the circuit of secondary winding is
opened, the primary winding cannot set up flux and hence no torque will be produced and
thus the relay can be made inoperative.
3] Induction cup relay:
Fig. 3.9 shows induction cup relay. It closely resembles an induction motor, except
that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor conductor (cylindrical) portion being free to
rotate.
To trip
circuit
Stationary Rotor
iron core cup
Figure 3.9 Induction Cup Relay
A stationary iron core is placed inside the hollow cylindrical rotor called cup to de-
crease the air gap without increasing inertia. The rotating magnetic field is produced by
two pairs of coils wound on four poles placed radially around the outside of the cup as
shown in the fig. 3.9. If 1 and 2 be the fluxes produced by the two pair of poles, torque
produced is proportional to 1 2 sin, where  is the phase displacement between the two
fluxes. This type of construction can be of single winding or double winding type and is
used for high-speed induction relay because the moment of inertia can be kept much small-
er than induction disc relays.
Theory of induction relay torque:
In induction relays, torque is produced when one alternating flux reacts with eddy
currents induced in a rotor (say, disc) by another alternating flux of the same frequency but
displaced in time and phase.
Fig. 3.10 Production of (force) torque in an induction relay
2 
I2 I1
F2 F1 i2
i1
Fig. 3.10 Production of (force) Torque in an Induction Relay
The two fluxes 1 and 2 are produced in a disc type shaded pole relay by shading
technique. In watthour-meter type, 1 is produced by the upper magnet and 2 by the lower
magnet. In case of the cup type construction, 1 and 2 are produced by pairs of coils.
The theory given below is applicable for both disc type and cup type induction re-
lays.
The fluxes are A. C. quantities and therefore can be expressed as under.
1 = 1 m sin t
2 = 2 m sin (t + )
where  is the phase displacement between 1 and 2 . The flux 2 leads 1 by , e.m.f.’s
induced in the disc or cup are:
d1
e1 
dt
d ( 1m sin ωt )
e1 
dt
e1  1m cost …[1]
d2
Similarly e2 
dt
d ( 2m sin ( ωt +  ) )
e 
dt
e2   2m cos ( ωt +  )

As the paths to eddy currents in the disc have negligible self-inductance, it may be
assumed that the induced eddy currents in the disc/cup are in phase with their e.m.f’s.
i1  1m cos ωt and
i2  2m cos ( ωt +  )
The eddy current produced by one flux reacts with the other flux and vice-versa.
Therefore, the forces are:
F1  1 i 2
 1m sin ωt 2m cos ( ωt +  )
 1m 2m cos ( ωt +  ) sin ωt
and F2  2m i1
 2m sin ( ωt +  ) 1m cos ωt
 1m 2m sin ( ωt +  ) cos ωt
Since these forces are in opposition as shown in fig. 3.10 the resultant force is giv-
en by,
F = (F2 – F1)
F  1m 2m sin ( ωt +  ) cos t − cos ( ωt +  ) sin ωt 
F  1m 2m sin 
or F  1 2 sin  or T  1 2 sin 
In this expression, 1 and 2 are r.m.s. values.

If the same current produces fluxes 1 and 2 (as in watthour-meter construction),
the force produced is given by
F  I1 I 2 sin 
or F  I 2 sin  (∵same current I1= I2 = I produces 1 and 2).
Thus the induction relay is a sine comparator. The torque expression, T 1 2 sin 
shows that the maximum torque is developed when  is 90 or 270 and zero torque when
 is 0 or 180
3.7 MOVING COIL RELAYS:
Fig. 3.11 shows a permanent magnet moving coil relay. It responds to D.C. quanti-
ties only. It can be used with A.C. quantities in combination with rectifiers. These relays
are most sensitive type electromagnetic relays. These are costlier than induction cup or
moving iron type relays. These are used as slave relays.
In this relay the coil is free to rotate in the magnetic field between poles of a per-
manent magnet. The torque is produced by the interaction between the magnetic field due
to the magnet and the field produced by operating current in the relay coil.
Fixed contact
Moving
contact
N S
Coil
Permanent magnet
Fig. 3.11 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay
3.8 RELAY APPLICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS:

The application of a particular relay is decided by its characteristics and other fac-
tors (like accuracy, burden, operating time, method of setting etc.)
The relay in general, is expected to sense the change between healthy and faulty
conditions and provide a signal to circuit breaker to operate when fault occurs.
A] Over current Relays:
Nowadays electromagnetic relays are used for over current protection. A protective
relay which operates when the load current exceeds a predetermined or preset value is
called an over current relay. The over current relay is used for the protection of large mo-
tors, power equipments and distribution lines. The induction disc type relay is commonly
used.
The operating time of all over current relays tends to become asymptotic to a defi-
nite minimum value with increase in the value of operating current. This is due to satura-
tion of the magnetic circuit. So by varying the point of saturation, different characteristics
can be obtained. The different characteristics are:
1] Definite time
2] Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT)
3] Very inverse
4] Extremely inverse
These are obtained with induction disc and induction cup relays.
IDMT
Definite time
Operating time in second
10
Very inverse
Extremely inverse
(0, 0) 10 Plug Setting

s 100
Figure 3.12 Multiples of Plug Setting

S
In induction relays, if both fluxes are produced by the same quantity, say current
below saturation, the torque is proportional to I2, (the current in the relay coil). By shifting
saturation point, above different characteristics are obtained. Out of all these characteris-
tics, IDMT is the only characteristics which is specified by Indian standards - IS: 3231-
1965.
The time current characteristics are conveniently plotted on a log-log scale.
Two basic adjustable settings on all inverse time relays are as:
1] Time multiplier setting (TMS)
2] Current setting known as the plug setting multiplier (PSM)
B] Important Terms:
Following are some important terms used with relays.
1] Pickup current:
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate.
From CT
Plug setting
Relay coil
N Disk To trip circuit
Brake
magnet
Figure 3.13 Watthour meter Type Induction Disc Relay
2] Current setting:
In disc type relays, there are a number of tappings provided on the relay coil to ad-
just the pick up current to any defined value. These tappings on the relay coil are shown in
fig. 3.13.
An over current relay which is used for phase to phase fault protection can be set at
50% to 200% of the rated current in steps of 25%, the settings are marked as shown in fig.
3.14
Plug bridge
Operating current
50% 75% 100% 125% 150% 175% 200%
To relay coil
Figure 3.14 Taps on Relay Coil for Current Setting
Current setting is usually achieved by the use of tappings on the relay coil. The taps
are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in fig. 3.14. The number of turns on the relay
coil is changed by changing position of the plug bridge. It changes the torque on the disc
and hence the pick up value also.
The relay used for protection against earth-faults (called earth fault relay) has
settings from 20% to 80% of the rated current in steps of 10 %. The current rating of an
earth-fault relay is 1 A while that of over current relay (used for phase to phase protection)
is 5 A.
3] Plug setting multiplier (PSM):
It is defined as the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick - up current. PSM
can be expressed as,
Fault current in relay coil

P. S. M. =
Pickup current
P.S.M. can be expressed as
Sec ondary current
P. S. M. =
Relay current setting
4] Time setting:
The operating time of inverse time relays can be set at a desired value. The time
setting is adjustable from 0 to l, i.e. the values are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, …. 0.9, 1. The time setting
is usually known as the time multiplier setting (TMS). The value selected is a multiple of
the operating time shown on the time/current characteristic curve drawn for a time setting
of 1. i.e. corresponding to TMS = 1 shown in fig. 3.15.
5] TMS:
The time multiplier setting for an inverse time relay is defined as the ratio of the re-
quired time of operation (T) to the time obtained from the relay characteristic at
TMS = 1.0 and using the PSM equivalent to maximum fault current.
10
Operating time in second
1 2 3 4 5 10 20
Current as multiple of setting (PSM)
Fig. 3.15 Standard IDMT Characteristics
Suppose that at a particular value of the current or plug setting multiplier(PSM), the
operating time is 4.0 seconds with TMS = 1. The operating time for the same current with
TMS = 0.1 will be 4.0 × 0.1 = 0.4 second. In other wards, if the time from the curve is 4.0
seconds (Tm) and the operating time required is 0.4 second (T) the TMS must be,
TMS = T/TM = 0.4 / 4.0 = 0.1.
T
TMS =
Tm
Where T = the required time of operation and Tm = the time obtained from the
relay characteristic curve at TMS =1.0 and employing the PSM equivalent to maximum
fault current.
Current setting is adjusted by means of a tapped plug bridge shown in fig. 3.14,
hence known as plug settings multiplier (PSM)
Pr imary current ( fault )

P.S.M. =
Pr imary setting current

=
P ickup current

=
Rated sec ondary current of CT  Current setting
Since, Pick-up current = (Rated secondary current of CT × current setting)

Example 1:
Determine the operating time of an over current relay of the current rating of 5A
having a current setting of 150 % and TMS = 0.4, CT. ratio = 400/5, fault current = 2400
A. AT TMS = 1, occurring time at various PSM’S are:
PSM 2 4 8 10 20
Operating time Seconds 10 5 3 2.8 2.4
Solution:
Relay current setting = 150% i.e., the pick up current will be more by 50 % than 5 A
i.e. 5 × 1.5 = 7.5 A
400
C. T. ratio =
5
= 80
Pr imary fault current

P.S.M. =
Re lay current setting  C. T. ratio
2400
=
7.5  80
= 4
P.S.M. = 4
Operating time from, the given for PSM = 4 is 5 seconds. This time is for TMS = 1.
The operating time for TMS = 0.4,
T = 5 × 0.4
= 2.0 seconds
B) Indirect Heated Thermal Relay:
Fig.3.16 represents the schematic arrangement of this type of relay.
Current proportional to system current is made to flow through the heating coil of
the relay. The bimetallic strip gets heated by means of heat produced by heating coil. A
moving contact is fixed to an insulated, pivoted arm. The spring ‘S’ makes the contact of
insulated arm with the bimetallic strip. The tension of spring ‘S’ can be changed by move-
ment of the sector shaped plate ‘A’. In other words, with the help of sector A, the current
setting of relay can be changed. At room temperature, the strip is straight but when current
flows through heating coil, it bends due to which the tension of the spring is reduced at the
set value of current. The bending of strip is sufficient to close the relay contacts against the
force of spring ‘S’ Thus trip circuit of circuit breaker gets signal for operation.
Such type of over current relay is mostly used for protection of motor.
Relay contacts
Bimetallic strip
Heating coil
To C.T.
To trip
circuit
Calibration
setting
S A
Spring
Figure 3.16Thermal Relay
C] Induction Type Over current Relay:

Fig. 3.17 represents the details of induction type over current relay. It is suitable for
A. C. power system. It consists of two electromagnets, the upper magnet is ‘E’ type, on the
central limb of which are carried two windings.
The upper winding acts as primary winding and the lower winding acts as second-
ary winding. The upper magnet produces flux 1 when current flows through primary
winding. The alternating flux 1 of primary winding links to secondary winding. Hence,
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in secondary
winding. The emf induced in the lower winding, produces current to flow through the
winding placed on the lower ‘U’ magnet. This secondary current produces flux 2. The two
fluxes 1 and 2 are sufficiently displaced from each other and cause eddy currents in the
disc, which will set up a torque on the disc, causing rotation of the disc.
I
IS
2

IO
1
Fig. 3.18 Phasor Dia. for Induction Type Overcurrent Relay
1
Aluminium disc To trip circuit
2
Figure 3.17 Induction Type Over current Relay
Fig. 3.18 represents the vector diagram of the circuit. IO is exciting current of the
relay. IS is secondary current referred to primary and I represents total primary current. The
phase angle between 1 and 2 is α. When the current I is more than required set value, the
disc rotates to close the trip circuit terminals.
D] Shaded Pole Structure:
The arrangement of a shaded pole induction type over current relay is represented
in fig. 3.19 It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc, which is free to rotate in the air gap of
the electromagnet. Some portion of the poles (which is nearly ⅓ of pole area) is surround-
ed by copper bands known as shading rings.
2
2
Shading 1 Disc
band To trip circuit
I
Figure 3.19 Shaded Pole Type Relay
Alternating flux 1 in the unshaded portion will cause induced currents in shading
ring and set up flux 2, fluxes 1 and 2 are displaced from each other, causing induced ed-
dy currents i1 and i2 in the disc. The action is to set up a torque on the disc, which will ro-
tate at set value of current I.
E] Overload Inverse Time Relay:
Fig. 3.20 represents the details of a overload inverse time relay. It essentially con-
sists of the mechanism as that of the over current relay, but it is modified to give the in-
verse time characteristic.
On the upper ‘E’ type electromagnet, two windings are provided. One is primary
and other is secondary. The primary is connected to C.T. secondary of the power transmis-
sion line, which is under protection. It is provided with tappings, which are connected to a
plug setting bridge. It is used for setting of operating current of relay. The secondary wind-
ing is wound on the lower part of ‘E’ upper magnet and it is spread over the two limbs of
the lower ‘U’ type magnet. By this method, the flux from the upper magnet entering the
disc is displaced from the flux of the lower magnet entering the disc. The interaction pro-
duces torque on the disc. The spindle of the disc carries the moving contacts, which bridges
two fixed contacts after the disc has rotated through a certain angle. The angle may vary
from 0 to 360°C.
The speed of disc is dependent upon the current. When the current flowing through
the primary winding is more for same setting, speed of rotation increases, and operating
time is reduced, the reverse is also true. Thus, the time current characteristic of the relay
follows the inverse-square law. The definite minimum time characteristic of the relay is
obtained by use of saturated upper magnet i.e. at a particular value of primary current the
core becomes saturated, and further increase in value of this current will not increase flux
and therefore speed of disc does not increase. Hence, it takes specified minimum time for
the operation of the relay. That is why it is also called as inverse definite minimum time lag
(IDMT) relay.
T T
Trip circuit
terminals
Trip contact
Disc
Plug
setting
bridge
Current coil terminals C

C
Figure 3.20 Overload Inverse Time Relay
F] Permanent magnet moving coil type:

Fig. 3.21 represents details of such type of relay. The coil is placed on the core at
the centre of the permanent magnet poles and it is free to rotate in the magnetic field of
permanent magnet. The actuating current is made to flow through the coil, and the torque is
produced by the inter-action between field of P.M. and field of the coil. This type of relay
works on D. C. only. The restraining force can be provided with spring, when the operating
force or current flowing through the coil exceeds the set value, the armature will move,
closing the contacts. The time setting can be changed by changing the distance between the
contacts. The time/ current characteristic of these relays is inverse characteristic. Such type
of relays produces uniform torque.
Fixed contact To trip

Moving contact circuit
Permanent
magnet N S
Coil
Figure 3.21
4.11Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Type Relay
Trip
S N circuit
contacts
Axially supported
coil
Figure 4.12
3.22 PMMC Relay
Fig. 3.22 represents another type of moving coil P.M. relay. The coil is supported
axially and moves horizontally when current is passed through it. These relays are faster
than moving coil, because of small travel and light parts. The operating time of the order of
30 m sec can be obtained, the VA burden is low, and the sensitivity can be as low as 0.1
milli-watt. They are very delicate for use.
3.9 CURRENT TRANSFORMER AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Current transformers are used for reducing A.C. current from higher value to lower
value for protection/measurement/control. Potential transformers, also called voltage
transformers (VT) are used for stepping down A.C. voltage from higher to lower value for
protection / measurement /control.
A] Current Transformers for Protection:
The current rating of a protective relay is generally 5A or 1A. But, the primary cir-
cuit currents are of higher magnitudes. It is quite obvious that these heavy currents in an
element of a power system must be reduced to lower values suitable for relay operation.
This is achieved with the help of ‘Current Transformers’. C. T’s are also used for instru-
mentation i.e. in measurement. The C. T’s used for protection are known as protective or
protection C. T’s.
A.C.T. isolates the secondary circuit (the relay circuit) from the primary circuits
(power circuit) and provides currents in the relay, which are proportional to these in power
circuits. The primary winding of the C.T. is connected in series with the load and therefore,
it carries the actual power system currents (normal or fault).
The secondary circuit of a C.T. must on no account be opened while its primary is
carrying a current, since all the primary ampere-turns would then be available to produce
flux. The iron loss due to the high flux density would cause excessive heating of the core
and the windings. A high e.m.f. could be induced in the secondary winding. Hence if it is
desired to remove the ammeter or protective relay from the secondary circuit, the second-
ary winding must first be short-circuited.
1] C. T. construction:
There are two types of construction of C.T. and hence classified as:
i] Bar Primary C.T. and ii] Wound Primary C.T.
2] Requirements of C.T.’s for protection:
The requirements of protection C.T.s are quite different from those of measuring
C.T.s. The C.T.s used with measuring instruments are required to be accurate over the
I1
To Load
P
Laminated Secondary
core winding
Wound
primary
Secondary P
S
Bar as primary
winding
I2
Laminated iron core
Relay Relay
Figure 3.16 (a) Wound primary C.T. Figure 3.16 (b) Bar C. T.
P1 P2
Secondary
Primary
(Line conductor)
Ring type
core
S2
S1
Figure 3.16 (c) Symbol of a C.T. Figure 3.16 (d) Outdoor high voltage C. T.
normal working range of currents, whereas the C.T.s used for protection purpose are re-
quired to give a correct ratio upto many times the rated primary currents, since the relay
has to work reliably at normal currents as well as fault currents. Its accuracy is not im-
portant for many applications, at currents less than the rated value.
3] Core material:
The C.T. is similar in operation to any other transformer, and therefore its primary
current also consists of two components, namely the exciting (magnetising current) which
magnetises the core and the secondary current which is transformed in the inverse ratio of
the turns ratio. The exciting current is not transformed and, therefore, is the cause of the
transformer errors. Because of this reason, certain values of secondary currents could never
be produced whatever the value of primary current. This happens when the C.T. core satu-
rates.
The general shape of a C.T. magnetisation curve is shown in fig. 3.23. The shape of
the characteristic is different for different core materials. The curve is divided into three
regions, by the ankle point and the knee point as shown in the fig.3.24.
The knee point marks the boundary between the saturated and unsaturated regions.
10% Increment
Secondary voltage
50% Increment
Knee point
Ankle point
(0, 0) Total exciting current
Figure3.24
3.17 C. T. Magnetising Characteristics
4] Knee point:
The knee point is defined as the point on the magnetisation curve at which a 10%
increase in secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in exciting current. The working
range of a protection C.T. extends over the full range between the ankle point and the knee
point and beyond that. The measuring C.T. usually operates in the region of the ankle
point. This is because of the radical difference in their basic functions. Measuring CT. re-
quires comparatively high accuracy over the range of 10% to 120% rated current, and it is
an advantage if the measuring C.T. saturates for currents above this range in order to pro-
tect the measuring instruments.
Protection C.T. on the other hand, requires linear characteristic upto the secondary
voltage corresponding to maximum fault current in the connected burden.
Fig. 3.25 shows the characteristics for protection C.T. and measuring C.T. for the
same rated burden.
Secondary voltage Protection C.T.
Measuring C.T.
(0, 0) Exciting current

Figure3.25
3.18 C.T. Magnetisation Characteristics of Protection and Measuring C.T.’s
It is obvious that a core of longer cross sectional area would be required for protec-
tion C.T. if the material has to be the same. Grain oriented steels having high saturation
levels are used as core materials for protection C.T.’s and nickel-iron alloys having low
exciting amp-turns per unit length of the core are used for the CT.’s for measurement and
the knee point occurs at a relatively low flux densities.
5] C.T. burden:
The burden on the C.T. is defined as the load connected across its secondary termi-
nals, expressed in volt-amperes (VA). It can also be expressed in terms of impedance at the
rated secondary current at a given power factor. Rated burdens of C.T.’s refer to the maxi-
mum load in volt-amperes (VA) which can be applied across the secondary terminals,
without the ratio and phase angle errors exceeding the permissible limits.
6] Accuracy class:
It is the accuracy class assigned to the current transformer with the specified limits
of the ratio error and phase angle error.
The accuracy classes are as under.
Current Error rated Phase displacement at Composite error rated

Accuracy
primary current (in rated current (in accuracy limit Primary
Class
percent) minutes) Current (Per cent)
5P 1  60 5
10 P 3 - 10
15 P 5 - 15
The C.T.’s are marked, for example, as 30/5P 10, where first number indicates out-
put in VA (e.g. 30), second number indicates accuracy class (e.g. 5P) and last number indi-
cates composite error (e.g. 10).
7] Linear coupler:
An iron-cored C.T. has the limitation of magnetic saturation and owing to D.C. off-
set transient component present in the fault current, the stability on heavy through faults
may be difficult to obtain.
If the C.T. core is made of non-ferrous material, usually air or plastic, the problem
of saturation and D.C. offset transients are overcome. An air cored C.T. has a linear charac-
teristic and is called a linear coupler. Such C.T.s have no saturation limits and hence no ra-
tio and phase angle errors which arise due to saturation.
A C.T. with a small air gap in its iron core is also having linear characteristic, and
no errors such a C.T. is called as transactor.
B ] Potential or Voltage Transformers for Protection:
The voltage rating of a protective relay is 110 V. It is not possible to connect the
voltage coils of the protective devices directly to high voltage systems. It is therefore nec-
essary to reduce/ step down the voltage and to insulate the protective equipment from the
power circuit. This is achieved with the help of a potential transformer (PT). It is also
called as voltage transformer (VT). Thus, potential transformers are used to reduce the
power system voltage to lower values which suit the ratings of protective relays.
Ideally, a PT should produce a secondary voltage exactly proportional to the prima-
ry voltage and exactly in phase opposition. Practically, this is not achieved due to the volt-
age drops in the primary and secondary coils. Therefore, ratio error and phase angle errors
are introduced.
A] P.T. construction:
There are two types of construction for P.T.’s as: Conventional wound type PT and
the capacitor PT.
1] Wound type or electromagnetic type:
In this, primary and secondary are wound on magnetic core similar to usual trans-
former. The wound type P.T. is conveniently used for system voltages upto or below 132
kV for economic reasons.
2] Capacitor type P.T. (CVT):

The capacitor P.T. is essentially a capacitance potential divider as shown in fig.
3.26. Capacitor P.T. is used for voltages, above 132 kV.
VC1 C1
Line voltage
VC2 V Output
C2
Figure 3.19 Basic Circuit of Capacitor Type P. T.

3.26
Specifications for voltage transformer:

The following aspects should be considered while selecting the P.T.
1. Rated primary voltage. 2. Rated secondary voltage.
3. Rated burden. 4. Supply frequency.
5. Number of phases. 6. Accuracy class.
7. Insulation level.
The ratio error and phase angle errors for P.T. required for protection according to
IS: 3156 (Part-III) are as follows.
Accuracy Class Ratio Error Phase Angle Error (in Degrees)
3.0 3% 2
5.0 5% 5
3.10 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYING

A] Current Balance Differential Protection:
It operates on the principle of comparison between phase- angle and magnitudes of

the currents entering and leaving the system to be protected.
For understanding the principle of operation, consider that two CT’S, CT1 and CT2
be used at both ends of the system to be protected. They have same current ratio and can be
connected as shown in fig. 3.27. The differential relay is to be connected in parallel.
At normal working conditions, the currents through CT1 and CT2 are equal in mag-
nitude and having zero phase displacement hence current through relay R will be zero and
it will remain inoperative. When fault occurs current
b through CT2 will be zero, hence cur-
rent flowing through relay R will be current of CT1, which will operate the relay. When the
nature of fault is other than earth fault, the difference current of two CT’S flows through
the relay, when the magnitude of this current exceeds set value, or when the phase differ-
ence between these CT current becomes more than the set value, the relay operates and
closes the contacts of the trip circuit.
Bus-Bar S/S A
C.B.
1
CT1 IC1
2
Relay
1
CT2 IC2
2
C.B. Ir = IC1-IC2
Bus-Bar S/S B
Figure 4.14 Differential Relay System

3.27
B] Voltage Balance Differential Relaying:

The system is represented in fig. 3.28.
CT1 Alternator winding CT2
Figure 4.15
3.28 Voltage Differential Relay
Two C. T.’ S. of same current ratio are connected across two ends of the alternator
winding. A relay R is connected in series with the two C. T.’ S when the load current at two
ends of the circuit being protected is same, and then there will be no voltage drop across
the relay to cause any current to flow in the relay. When the fault occurs voltage balance is
disturbed and current flows through relay R, causing closing of trip circuit contacts of C.B.
C] Biased Beam Or Percentage Differential Relay:
The relays explained uptill now have disadvantage that a small difference in the
C.T. ratio of the two C. T.’ s may cause erroneous operation of relay when their primaries
carry through heavy fault currents. The faulty operation can be avoided by using percent-
age differential relay.
Fig, 3.29(a) represents the general scheme of this type of relay, the operating coil of
I + I2
this relay carry current I1 - I2 and restraining coil carries current 1 . The restraining
2
CT1 Alternator winding CT2
I
Trip
Restraining coil circuit
Operating
coil
Figure 4.16
3.29 (a) Percentage Differential Relay
coil does not allow the relay to operate when primary carries large through fault currents. A
mechanical biasing is provided with the help of beam for obtaining a certain current setting
for operation, when there is a current only in one C.T.
Fig. 3.29 (b) represents a simplified circuit of this type of relay.
CT1 CT2
I Alternator
winding
Operating
coil
Restraining coil
Figure 4.16
3.29 (b) Simplified Diagram for Percentage Differential Relay
3.11 TRANSLAY RELAY:

The translay relay as shown in fig. 3.30 is similar in construction to an over-current
Feeder CT1 CT2
A A’
1 1’
3 2 2’
3 3’ 3’
C C’
Disc
4’
4
P
B
B’
P’
Pilot wires
Figure 4.17
3.30 Translay Relay
relay except the following:

The secondary winding on the upper magnet spread on the lower ‘U’ magnet is kept
open for connection
The central limb of the upper magnet and the left hand side limb are shaded with
thick copper rings which neutralises the effect of capacitive currents in pilot wires.
These relays are based on the voltage balance principle and two relays are used in
conjunction for the protection purpose. The schematic diagram of Tran slay system is
shown with details of construction of relay in fig. 3.30.
A, A’- upper E type Electromagnets
B, B’- lower ‘U’ type electromagnet
1, 1’ -primary winding
2, 2’ - secondary winding
3, 3’ - Shading rings.
4, 4’ - secondary winding spread on lower ‘u’ magnet
Under normal working condition, CT1 and CT2 carry equal currents i.e. currents
through 1,1’ are equal and they induce an equal emf in the secondary windings 2,2’. The
voltage appearing across points P, P’ of pilot wires with the operating windings 4,4’ in se-
ries will be zero.
At the time of fault on the feeder, the current at one end i.e. sending end will be
more than the receiving end current. The effect is to cause unequal induced emfs in the
secondary, and out of balance current flows through the pilot wires. As the operating wind-
ings are in series, this current flows through these windings also, exerting the operating
torque on the disc of the relay, making to move, and close the contacts of the trip circuit of
C.B.
The control is provided by means of spring tension, with the help of which setting
of relay can be carried out.
3.12 DISTANCE RELAYING:
The operation of the relays studied up till now is based on the magnitude of the cur-
rent or power in the protected circuit.
The relays in which operation depends upon the ratio of applied voltage to current
in the protected circuits are called as distance or ‘Impedance’ relays. In such type of relays
the torque (force) produced by a current element is opposed by the torque produced by a
voltage element; and relay operates when ratio of V/I is less than a set value.
There are two types of distance relays in use for the protection of power supply sys-
tem, namely.
a] Definite distance relay.
b] Time distance relay.
A ] Definite Distance Relay:
Beam
Relay
contacts
F
To trip circuit
Armature
V I
Restraining Operating coil

coil
Figure3.31
4.18 Distance Relay
Fig. 3.31 represents the schematic arrangement of a definite distance type impedance relay.
It consists of a pivoted beam, pivoted at F; two electromagnets, which are
energised respectively by a current, and voltage transformer in the protected circuit i.e. cur-
rent proportional to circuit current flows through coil of one magnet and current propor-
tional to voltage of circuit flows through coil of other magnet. The armatures of the two
electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the opposite sides of the fulcrum.
To the beam is fixed bridging piece for closing the trip contacts. The torque produced by
the two coils act in opposite direction.
At normal working condition, the force due to voltage coil on its armature (plunger)
is greater than that of the current coil. Hence, the relay contacts remain open. When fault
occurs voltage applied to the relay decreases3.32 where as current flowing through the other
coil increases the ratio of voltage to current falls below the set value, hence the force of the
current coil on its plunger becomes more than the pull of voltage coil on its plunger the
result is that beam tilts, closing the trip circuit contacts of the C.B.
The pull of the current element is proportional to I2, and that of voltage element to
V2, hence the relay will operate, when
K1 V 2 < K 2 I2
V2 K2
or 2 <
I K1
V K2
or <
I K1
K2
i.e. Z <
K1
The value of constants K1 and K2 depends up on the turns of coils. Hence, the set-
ting of such relays can be changed by using suitable taps on the two coils.
These relays work on electromagnetic action.
B] Time Distance Impedance Relay (Induction Type):
The time distance relay is a relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction and adjusts its operating time according to the distance of the relay from the fault
point.
Fig. 3.32 represents the schematic arrangement of a typical induction type, time
distance impedance relay. It consists of a double- winding type induction over current ele-
ment.
The spindle of this relay which carries the disc, is connected by means of a spiral
spring, coupled to a second spindle, which carries the bridging strip of the relay contacts.
The bridge is normally held in open position by an armature held against the pole
face of an electromagnet excited by the voltage of the circuit to be protected.
To trip circuit
From P.T.
Voltage
excited Spiral
Under normal conditions, the pull of the armature is more than that of the induction
element, keeping the trip circuit contacts open. On the occurrence of fault, the disc of in-
duction over current relay starts to rotate at a speed depending upon the operating current.
As the rotation of the disc continues, the spiral spring is wound up until the tension of the
spring is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of the voltage excited
magnet. Immediately the spindle carrying the armature and bridging piece moves rapidly
in response to the tension of the spring and closes the trip contacts of the circuit breaker.
The time of operation of the relay is directly proportional to the pull of the voltage
excited magnet, and the speed depends upon the operating current, hence time of V opera-
tion of the relay varies as V/I i.e. as Z or distance.
3.13 OTHER RELAYS
In study of other relays, we will briefly study the construction and working princi-
ple of following relays
a] Directional power relay b] Directional overcurrent and earth fault relay.
c] Negative phase sequence relay.
Potential coil
From P.T. To trip circuit
3.33
1
Disc
Current coil
2
From C.T.
Figure3.33
4.20 (i) Induction Type Directional Power Relay
A] Directional Power Relays:

Fig. 3.33 represents the schematic arrangement of the induction type directional
power relay. The operation of this type of relay is similar to that of an over current
induction relay. But in case of over current induction relay the torque is produced by the
interaction of magnetic fields obtained from the current in the circuit, while in case of
directional power relay the driving torque is produced by the interaction of the fields pro-
duced from both voltage and current of the circuit in which it is provided. The torque de-
veloped is dependent upon the direction of current in relation to voltage i.e. the relay rec-
ognizes the phase difference between the voltage and current.
The voltage coil is provided on the central limb of the upper ‘E’ type electromag-
net. It produces a flux, 1, which lags from voltage ‘V’ by 90°C. Let the current through
the winding on the lower magnet be lagging the voltage ‘V’ by an angle. The flux
V


2
1
Figure3.33
4.20 (ii) Phasor Diagram
2, produced by it will be almost in phase with it, as shown in vector diagram. The driving
torque T on the disc will be given by
T  1 2 sin
or T  V I sin(90 – )
i.e.  V I cos  , which is the power of the circuit,
When the phase angle, becomes more than 90°C, the power reverses, and the relay
closes the trip circuit contacts of circuit breaker.
These relays are used for controlling the reverse power of synchronous machines,
they are not used as directional protective relays under short-circuit conditions, because
under such conditions the voltage drops and the sensitivity of the relay drops.
B ] Directional Over current and Earth Fault Relay:
Fig. 3.34 represents schematic arrangement of a directional over current and earth
fault relay. It essentially consists of a combination of over current relay (non-directional
type) and a directional power relay.
In normal working condition the disc of the directional power relay does not move,
but the moment there takes place a reversal of current or power the disc of the directional
power relay will start rotating, which closes the contacts of the secondary winding of the
over current relay or earth fault element due to over current a torque is produced in the
disc, causing its rotation, which closes the contacts of the trip circuit of C.B., enabling the
circuit breaker to operate and isolate the supply.
Disc Over current

element
To trip
circuit
Plug
setting
bridge
Directional
element
Voltage
Current
Disc
Figure 4.21 Directional Overcurrent and Earth Fault Relay
R Y B
IR IR’
1
2
IY 3
Disc To trip
circuit
Figure 4.22 Induction Type Negative Phase Sequence Relay

C] Induction Type Negative Phase Sequence Relay:

The schematic arrangement of this type of relay is represented in fig. 3.35.
It consists of two electromagnets similar to over current induction relay. The prima-
ry winding provided on the upper ‘E’ type electromagnet is provided with the central tap
resulting into three terminals of the winding as marked on fig. The terminal 3 is connected
to the Y phase through C.T., while the terminals 1 and 2 are connected to R phase through
C.T. and a auxiliary transformer. The auxiliary transformer is provided with an air gap in
its magnetic circuit in order that the out put current from this transformer lags by 120°C
from the input, as shown in fig. 3.36.
IB
IY
30
 
30 30
IY IR IR’ IR’
(A)
Current in R and Y
phases in the secondary
side of C.Ts.
Figure 4.23
3.36 Positive Phase Sequence Currents
The currents IR and IY flow in opposite direction through the primary winding of
‘E’ type magnet due to auxiliary transformer construction, they are made equal in
magnitude hence as represented in fig. 3.36 the magnitude of current in the winding is
zero, hence the relay will not operate.
3.14 NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE CURRENT:
When the as symmetrical fault occurs, unbalanced currents in phases are resulting
into negative phase sequence component. The vector diagram of current under such asym-
metrical fault condition is shown in figure 3.37
IY
IR IR’ IR’ IY
C. T. secondary Auxiliary transformer Current in the primary
currents output currents winding of relay
Figure 4.24 Negative Phase Sequence Currents

3.37
From the vector diagram, it is clear that there will be a resultant current through the
winding and when its magnitude is more than the relay setting, the relay will operate and
close the trip circuit of the circuit breaker.
3.15 STATIC RELAY:
The static relay is a relay without any moving parts except in the slave device. It is
a combination of various devices. Its out put device can be electric, semiconductor or even
electromagnetic. The out put device is a tripping mechanism. The trip coil of circuit
breaker can be directly corrected to out put device.
Following is the block diagram of a static relay.
D. C. supply
Rectifier Relay measuring Amplifier Out put

circuit device
Transducer or Trip
secondary of CT circuit
The rectifier receives A.C. signal from transducer or secondary of C.T. It rectifies
A. C. signal into D.C. and feeds it to relay measuring unit. Relay measuring unit consists
of :
a] Comparator
b] Level detector
c] Filter and
d] Voltage stabilizer.
The output of the relay measuring unit is amplified by amplifier. The amplified
output is feed to output device which actuates the trip circuit.
Since all devices except output device are of either semiconductor type, their
speeds of operation are fast. Hence static relays are faster in operation than electromagnetic
relays.
Comparison between static relay and electro magnetic relay.
Static relay Electromagnetic relay
Advantages
1 Its power consumption is low. Its power consumption is comparatively

high.
2 Its operating time is very small. Its operating time is comparatively

large.
3 Various characteristics for static relay can Relatively less number of characteristics
be obtained. Hence, selectivity, stability are obtained in electromagnetic relays.
and adequateness can be achieved.
4 Resetting time and overshoots time are Resulting time of electromagnet is still
very small for static relays very small. However, overshoots time is
relatively large.
5 Static relays are compact and hence they Electromagnetic relays need compara-
need less space. tively more space.
6 Remote back up and monitoring is possi-

ble
7 Its operation is also almost free from vi- Its operation can be badly affected by
brations and shocks. vibrations and shocks.
8 Repeated operations are possible.
Disadvantages
1 Auxiliary voltage is required Auxiliary voltage is not required.
2 Static relays are more sensitive to voltage Electromagnetic relays are less sensitive
transients than electromagnetic relays to voltage transients.
3 The characteristics of static relay are bad- These relays are less sensitive to varia-
ly affected by variation in ambient tem- tion in ambient temperature
peratures.
4 Static relays are costlier than equivalent Electromagnetic relays are cheaper than
electromagnetic relays. equivalent static relays
3.16 MICROPROCESSOR BASED INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY

The following Fig.3.38 shows the schematic diagram of microprocessor based in-
verse time overcorrect relay.
The signals corresponding to overcorrect in R, Y or B line are fed to signal pro-
cessing unit by CT’S. The signal-processing block contains auxiliary CT’S surge suppres-
sors, rectifiers, filters etc. The processed signals are fed to analog to digital converters. The
output of A / D converter is digital. This digitized output of A / D converter is an in put to
microprocessor. The microprocessor processes the data and accordingly determines the
condition for tripping of the circuit breaker.
Various characteristics are possible by changing plug setting.
R Y B
To trip D
circuit Micro- A
processor T
C. B. A
R
CT E
A/D con- Q
verter U
CT Signal
E
Processing
S
T
and
display
Time mul-
tiplier
Plug set-
ting
Data log-
ger
Figure 3.38 Microprocessor Based Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

HIGHLIGHT (REVIEWING OF THE CHAPTER)

❖ Selectivity is the ability of a relay to select the faulty part of the system and
isolate it from the remaining healthy part of the system.
To provide selectivity to the system, entire power system is divided into number of
zones. By selectivity means, a relay protective scheme of one zone should not interfere in
the work of protective scheme of other zone if fault occurs in ‘other’ zone.
❖ Discrimination is the quality of relay due to which it distinguishes between
the following:
1] Normal condition and abnormal condition.
2] Abnormal condition within protective zone and abnormal condition elsewhere.
❖ Reliability:
❖ The protective relaying should be reliable in its operation i.e. it should not
fail to operate in the event of faults in its protected zone. It should not op-
erate unnecessarily.
❖ The basic requirement of reliable protection is reliability of each compo-
nent including C.B. relays, CT’S, P.T.S, trip circuit, battery system, cables
etc.
❖ Sensitivity:
❖ Sensitivity is the ability of relay system to operate when the operating cur-
rent or fault current just exceeds its preset value called as pick-up current.
The relay should not operate when the current in the relay coil is below its
pick-up value.
❖ Stability:
❖ It is the quality of a protective system by virtue of which the protective sys-
tem remains inoperative i.e. It does not operate and remains stable under
certain specified conditions such as system disturbances, through faults
(i.e. faults outside its zone of protection), transients etc.
❖ Relay:
❖ A relay is an automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit (trip
circuit or alarm circuit etc) is controlled (opened or closed) with a change
in the same or another electrical circuit. Relays are the essential compo-
nents of a protective relaying.
❖ Types of relays:
➢ Electromagnetic relay
➢ Thermal relay
➢ µP based and static relay
➢ Induction type relay
❖ Static relay
The static relay is a relay without any moving parts except in the slave device. It is a com-
bination of various devices. Its out put device can be electric, semiconductor or even elec-
tromagnetic. The out put device is a tripping mechanism. The trip coil of circuit breaker
can be directly corrected to out put device.
Following is the block diagram of a static relay.
D. C. supply
Rectifier Relay measuring Amplifier Out put

circuit device
Transducer or Trip
secondary of CT circuit
QUESTIONS
Q.1 What do you understand by time multiplier setting?
Q.2 What do you understand by plug setting multiplier?
Q.3 What are the different types of electromagnetic relays?
Q.4 Describe the construction and principle of operation of an induction type disc relay.
Q.5 The current rating of an over current relay is 5A, current setting is at 200 %, TSM =
0.4 C.T ratio = 400/5, fault current = 4000A.
Determine the operating time of the relay. Use the following table of operating at various
PSM at TMS =1
PSM 2 4 8 20
Relay time in seconds 10 5 3 2.4
Q.6 Define the following:
1] Relay
2] Pick-up value
3] Protective relay
Q.7 Classify the basic relays used in the power system.
Q.8 Derive the expression for torque developed in an induction relay.
Q.9 Explain the construction and principle of operation of
1] Induction type cup-relay
2] Attracted armature type relay
Q.10 Describe with the help of neat diagram the construction and operation of induction
type over current relay.
Q.11 What is the difference between an over current relay and an earth fault relay?
Q.12 What do you mean by C.T. burden?
Q.13 Explain the basic difference between a C.T. used for protection and a C.T. used for
measurement.
Q.14 Discuss how saturation affects the accuracy of a C.T.
Q15. What do you mean by a linear coupler?
Q.16.What do you mean by a transactor?
Q17. What are the different types of P.T.s?
Q.18 What are the specifications of voltage transformer?
Q.19 What are the main categories of C.T.’s?
Q.20 State the various accuracy classes of current transformers as per IS.
Q.21 What are the markings on primary and secondary terminals of C.T.s?
Q.22 What is static relay?
Q.23 Compare static relay with electromagnetic relay.
Q.24 State desirable qualities of relay.
Q.25 Define:
1] Sensitivity
2] Selectivity
3] Stability
4] Discrimination
5] Reliability
Q.26 Define
1] Pick-up value
2] Reset or dropout value.
3] Instantaneous relay.
4] Distance relay.
5] Impedance relay.
Q.27 Draw neat sketch and explain working principle of an induction type overcurrent re-
lay.
Q.28 Explain the working principle of induction cup-relay.
Q.29 Explain how an inverse definite minimum time characteristic is obtained in case of
over load relay.
Q.30 What are the advantages and disadvantages of a moving coil permanent magnet type
relay over a plunger type relay?
Q.31 Draw a neat sketch and explain the working of a biased beam percentage differential
relay.
Q.32 On what principle does the Translay relay work? Draw a neat sketch and explain its
working.
Q.33 What is the meaning of distance relay? Explain the working principle of balanced
beam type distance relay.
Q.34 Draw neat sketch and explain working principle of induction type impedance relay.
Q.35 Explain in brief induction type reverse power relay.
Q.36 Draw a neat sketch and explain the directional overcurrent and earth fault relay.
Q.37 What is negative phase sequence relay?
Q.38 Draw a neat sketch of microprocessor based inverse time overcurrent relay. Explain
its working.


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Electrical Power System – II 3.

3.2 Classification – Electromagnetic attraction, induction, static, µP based relays

3.3 Protective transformers,

(No numerical on above topic)

3.4 Over current relay – Time current characteristics

3.5 Static over current relays

3.6 µP based over current relays

3.7 Distance relaying – Principle, static, µP based

3.8 Directional relay

3.9 Differential relay

(Simple numerical on relay setting)

❖ To classify the relays.

❖ To study current transformers and potential transformers used in protection system.

❖ To study over current relay for its time current characteristics.

❖ To compare static relays with electromagnetic relays.

❖ To solve simple numerical on relay setting.

An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission lines,

ISC ISC ISC

Bus bar A Bus bar B CB-3 Fault

Assuming load currents of healthy feeder very small c

e] To provide an indication of the type of fault which has occurred.

The complete relaying of a system is divided into following groups:

The coil is energised by an operating quantity proportional to the circuit current on

Relay To trip circuit

Figure 3.3 Plunger Type Relay

Plunger Plunger To trip

Figure 3.4 Balanced Beam Relay

Net Torque, T = K1 I12 − K 2 I 22 (neglecting spring effect)

Where I1 = current in operating coil

Positive torque Ideal

(0, 0) I2 Restraining current

Figure 3.5 Operating Characteristics of Balanced Beam Relay

B] Electromagnetic Induction Type Relays:

Brake magnet Shading ring

Figure. 3.6 Shaded Pole Type Inductor Disc Relay

Shading Current setting arrangement

Figure 3.7 Construction in Practice for Shaded Pole Type relay

2] Watthour-meter type induction - disc relay:

It consists of two electromagnets (upper and lower). A pivoted aluminium disc is

Figure 3.8 Watthourmeter Type Induction Disc Relay

Figure 3.9 Induction Cup Relay

Fig. 3.10 Production of (force) Torque in an Induction Relay

e2   2m cos ( ωt +  )

i1  1m cos ωt and

 1m sin ωt 2m cos ( ωt +  )

 1m 2m cos ( ωt +  ) sin ωt

 2m sin ( ωt +  ) 1m cos ωt

 1m 2m sin ( ωt +  ) cos ωt

F  1m 2m sin ( ωt +  ) cos t − cos ( ωt +  ) sin ωt 

F  1m 2m sin 

In this expression, 1 and 2 are r.m.s. values.

or F  I 2 sin  (∵same current I1= I2 = I produces 1 and 2).

Fig. 3.11 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay

3.8 RELAY APPLICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS:

(0, 0) 10 Plug Setting

Figure 3.12 Multiples of Plug Setting

N Disk To trip circuit