UNIT 3 FUNDAMENTALS AND

SUB-FIELDS OF
BIOLOGICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY*
Contents
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Human Evolution
3.2 Human Variation and Adaptation
3.3 Human Genetics
3.4 Human Growth and Development
3.5 Summary
3.6 References
3.7 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress

Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you would be able to:
 describe the subfields of anthropology and the role of biological
anthropology in them;
 summarize the origins of modern biological anthropology; and
 critically discuss the contemporary subfields of biological anthropology:
human evolution, human variation and adaptation, human genetics,
human growth and development.

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Biological Anthropology is the study of human biological evolution and human
bio-cultural evolution. Every human is a product of evolutionary history, or
all the biological changes that have brought humanity to its present form.
Depending on their areas of interest, physical anthropologists might examine
molecular structure, bones and teeth, blood types, breathing capacity and
lung volume, genetics and genetic history, infectious and other types of
disease, origin of language and speech, nutrition, reproduction, growth and
development, ageing, primate origins, primate social behavior, brain biology
and many other topics dealing with variation in both the living and the dead-
sometimes the very long dead. In dealing with such topics, physical
anthropologists apply methods and theories developed in other disciplines
as well as in their own as they answer questions that help us understand
who we are. For example, physical anthropologists might draw on the work
of geologists who study the landforms and layering of deposits of soil and
rock that tell us when earlier humans lived. Or they might obtain information
from paleontologists, who study the evolution of life-forms in the distant past
and thus provide the essential context for understanding the world in which
earlier humans lived. Some physical anthropologists are trained in chemistry,
* Dr. Ratika Samtani, Amity Institute of Anthropology, Amity University, Noida. 33
Introducing Biological so they can analyze the chemical properties of bone and teeth to determine
Anthropology
what kind of food were eaten by those earlier humans. Or to learn how
living humans adapt to reduced-oxygen settings, such as in the high altitudes
of the Peruvian Andes Mountains, physical anthropologists might work with
physiologists who study the ability of lungs to absorb oxygen.

“Physical Anthropology is the science that considers humans as

biological organisms in terms of both their evolutionary history and
biological variation. At the beginning of the 20th century, the field
was first known as physical anthropology because the focus was
on the physical variation of modern and fossil humans and
nonhuman primates. Much of the early research was based on
descriptions of physical variation with little or no theoretical
background. In the 1950’s, with the development of genetics and
evolutionary science, research in physical anthropology became
more focused on biological and genetic processes. As a result, the
term “biological anthropology” became popular to emphasize the
new focus on biological processes within a genetic and evolutionary
framework” (Ryan, 2002).

We will focus the outlines of Human Evolution, Human variation and

adaptation, Human Genetics and Human Growth and Development in this unit.

3.1 HUMAN EVOLUTION

Evolution is a change in living organisms over time. Both cultural and
biological evolution is of immense interest to the anthropologists. Although
all living creatures ultimately share a common ancestry, they differ from one
another through the process of evolution. Biological evolution refers to genetic
change over successive generations. The process of change is characterized
by descent with modification, as descendant populations diverge from
ancestral ones. Thus, the process of evolution provides a mechanism to
account for the diversity of life on earth.
Mechanism of Organic Evolution: Organic evolution pertains to the
gradual changes that have taken place in living organisms for their better
adaptability to the environment. Macroevolution focuses on the formation
of new species (speciation) and on the evolutionary relationships among
groups of species. It may involve the following processes:
 Speciation
 Parallelism
 Convergence
 Mosaic Evolution
 Extinction
 Speciation refers to the formation of species or separate groups of
interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other
organisms. An example of speciation is the Galápagos finch. These
finches live on different islands in the Pacific Ocean and are adapted
to different eating habits. These birds don’t breed with one another and
have therefore developed into different species with unique characteristics.
34
 Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology

Fig. 1: Speciation in Galapagos Finches

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/speciation
 Parallelism refers to the evolutionary development of similar traits and
adaptations from the same ancestral trait in two related groups of
animals. For example; the arm swinging locomotion of gibbons is parallel
to the arm swinging locomotion of spider monkeys.

Fig. 2: Parallel evolution of vertebrate wings (pterodactyl, bat and bird)

Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-impressive-examples-of-independent-
parallel-evolution
 Convergence refers to the evolutionary development of similar traits and
adaptations in two groups of organisms that are not closely related.
For example; the wings of bats and wings of butterflies are convergent
structures.

Fig. 3: Convergent evolution of bat, bird and insect wings

Source: http://peabody.yale.edu/exhibits/tree-of-life/convergent-evolution-recurrence-form 35
Introducing Biological
Anthropology
 Mosaic Evolution refers to the differential evolution of component parts
of an organism. That is, all the parts of the organism do not change
at the same rate in the course of evolution and all parts of the organism
do not change in the same time period. For example, the foot and pelvis
of the fossil ancestors of man was clearly transformed from quadrupedal
to bipedal types in a relatively short time. The skull particularly the brain
case of hominids changed relatively little until the erect bipedal structure
had been perfected; then it changed rapidly relative to further changes
in the pelvis and foot.

Fig. 4: Transformation from quadrupedalism to bipedalism

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/bipedalism
 Extinction refers to the disappearance of a group or organisms from
the evolutionary record. There are many ways in which a species can
become extinct. A species may develop a way of life that would prevent
its survival, should the environment change. For example, the wooly
mammoths, well adapted to a glacial climate, became extinct as the
climate grew warmer and as a major predator (man) appeared.
Geologists have suggested that ‘life’ or living organic matter must have
originated about 3-4 billion years ago on this earth. The term ‘life’ or
‘living matter’ is attributed to the organic molecules of nucleic acid. The
first life must have originated in water, particularly, the sea, possibly
in form of aquatic bacteria. ‘Life’ invaded only after evolving gradually
in the course of several millions of years. The evolutionary scale of
geologists comprises of three major eras: Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic. Of these, Cenozoic era is further divided into seven epochs:
Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and
Holocene (Balter, 2005). It is during the epoch of Pleistocene that the
ancestors of man evolved. Holocene or the present epoch is the time
period of man or Homo sapiens.
A brief look at the major theories of organic evolution that will help
you to understand the process of evolution.
Theories of Organic Evolution: The three major theories of Organic
evolution are: Lamarckism, Darwinism and the Synthetic theory.
a) Lamarckism: The first theory of evolution, Lamarckism, was propounded
36 by Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French Zoologist in 1809. This theory
 is popularly known as “Inheritance of Acquired Characters”. Lamarck Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology
emphasized in his theory on the effects producing factors that influence
evolution:
i) Effect of changing environment: Changes in environment leads to
changes in needs and wants of organisms. This brings about changes
in activities, thereafter leading to changes in organs of organisms for
better adaptability. Lamarck believed that such changes could be
inherited.
ii) Effect of use and disuse of organs: According to Lamarck, changed
environmental conditions leads to the conscious effort on the part of
the organism to either excessively use a particular organ or totally disuse
an organ. He believed that excessive use of a particular organ led to
its further development and specialization, while the disuse led to its
atrophy. Such changed characters could be transmitted to their offsprings.

Fig. 5: Elongation of Giraffe’s neck

Source: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/theories/lamarckism
As an example of the specialization and modification acquired by an organ,
Lamarck suggested the case of giraffes. Lamarck was of the opinion that
the giraffes had small necks and were used to feeding on short herbs. When
the herbs became scanty, the ancestral forms were obliged to browse on
the leaves of trees. In attempting to do this, they had to stretch their necks.
After continuous stretching, the change became substantial, resulting in an
extraordinary long neck.
Lamarck’s theory faced several crucial drawbacks. Weismann (1883), a
German zoologist proved that use or disuse of organs does not bring any
modification even after being operated for several generations. He conducted
his experiments on rats by cutting off their tails for successive generations,
but did not see tail-less rats in any of the upcoming generations. He therefore
propounded the theory of “continuity of germplasm” wherein it was
maintained that germplasm was heritable but not somatoplasm and since
environment affects principally the somatoplasm, these changes cannot be
inherited.
b) Darwinism: Charles Darwin, a British naturalist, in the year 1859
published his book on the ‘Origin of Species’ and proposed the “Theory
of Natural Selection” and the concept of Organic Evolution. He
attributed several factors to the cause of evolutionary changes.
i) Overproduction: Potentially, all living organisms have the ability to
reproduce at a very high rate. Thus, any given population is usually 37
Introducing Biological able to reproduce many more young individuals that can adequately be
Anthropology
raised in the region they occupy.
ii) Variation: Darwin pointed out that all living organisms vary. No two
organisms are exactly alike. There are always some variations. Since
environment varies from region to region, the variations that living
organism shows also differ from region to region. Such variations are
preserved and transmitted to their offsprings. In nature, favorable
variations are more prone to be inherited than the unfavorable ones.
iii) Struggle for existence: Since the amount of space, food, residential
areas and other requirements of life are limited; there is a severe
competition between the individuals for these essentials of life. In other
words, there is a struggle for existence.
iv) Natural selection and the survival of the fittest: In the face of
the struggle for existence, only those organisms that are most well
adapted to the environment or fit in life can survive. Thus, nature
eliminates the least fitted organisms by means of several natural
calamities and preserves the well-adapted ones. Thus, natural selection
maintains more or less constant number of every species.
Darwin also faced criticism because:
 His theory does not account for the presence or origin of variations
among living organisms.
 Natural selection cannot carry a species beyond its natural range
of variability.
c) The Synthetic Theory/Neo-Darwinism: In the late 1920s and early
1930s, biologists realized that mutation and natural selection weren’t
opposing processes, but instead they both actually contributed to
biological evolution. The two major foundations of the biological sciences
had finally been brought together in what is called the Modern Synthesis.
From such a “modern” (that is, the middle of the twentieth century
onward) perspective, we define evolution as a two-stage process. These
two stages are:
 The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences
among organisms)
 Natural selection acting on this variation, whereby inherited
differences, or variation, among individuals differentially affect their
ability to successfully reproduce.
The synthetic theory considers evolution to be the result of changes in the
gene frequency of population. These changes produce variations. These
variations lead to effective adaptation to the environment. Changes in gene
frequency occur through the impact of the forces of evolution such as
selection, mutation, isolation, genetic drift and gene flow or migration or
hybridization which will be dealt subsequently in the Unit.
The study of human variation considers how and why human populations
differ genetically from each other. Biological anthropologists who study human
38 variation have a wide range of interests, including human adaptation, genetics,
growth and development, demography, health, epidemiology, nutrition, life Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology
history and disease.
“Human beings differ from one another in a variety of ways. Intrinsic to
the study of human variation is the recognition of human differences, that
is, the study of what is often considered “race”. Until the 1950’s much of
physical anthropology was devoted to racial description and classification.
Because the concept of race was and still is, so ingrained in society, physical
anthropologists have examined this issue in terms of evolutionary processes
rather than racial classifications defined by society” (Ryan, 2002).
Check Your Progress 1
1) What is meant by Mosaic Evolution?
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2) Give one example of Lamarck’s theory.
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3) Write a note on Synthetic theory.
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3.2 HUMAN VARIATION AND ADAPTATION

You have learnt in the previous section that biological anthropologists view
human variation as the result of the evolutionary factors – mutation, genetic
drift, gene flow and natural selection. To survive, all organisms must maintain
the normal functions of internal organs, tissues and cells within the context
of an ever changing environment. Even during the course of a single,
seemingly uneventful day, there are numerous fluctuations in temperature,
wind, solar radiation, humidity and so on. Physical activity also places stress
on physiological mechanisms. The body must accommodate all these changes
by compensating in some manner to maintain internal constancy, or
homoeostasis.
An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction
of organisms that bear it, relative to alternative characteristics (especially
the ancestral condition in the population in which the adaptation evolved).
Natural selection is the only mechanism known to cause the evolution of
adaptations; so many biologists would simply define an adaptation as a
characteristic that has evolved by natural selection. Three types of human
adaptations exist:
 Acclimatization: short-term biological change, as with immune resistance
to disease;
 Genetic change: long term biological change e. g. mutation; and
 Cultural change: non-biological change, as with technology.
39
Introducing Biological Acclimatization is another kind of physiological response to environmental
Anthropology
conditions and it can be short-term, long-term, or even permanent. These
responses to environmental factors are partially influenced by genes, but some
can also be affected by the duration and severity of the exposure,
technological buffers (such as shelter or clothing), individual behavior, weight
and overall body size. The simplest type of acclimatization is a temporary
and rapid adjustment to an environmental change. Tanning is a kind of
acclimatization. Tan fades once exposure to sunlight is reduced. In this
example, the physiological change is temporary.
Contrary to acclimatization, genetic adaptations last for many generations.
These changes occur due to long term exposure of a genetic stressor or
mutations. Adaptations caused by genetical changes are mainly environmental
specific. These genetic adaptations or changes can be advantageous in one
environment while it can also have detrimental effect in another environment.
One of the typical examples of genetic adaptions includes variation in size
and shape of human body in different altitude and temperature conditions.
Cultural changes are non-biological changes consisting of changes in socio-
cultural traits. Similar to genetic changes, cultural changes can be more or
less adaptive depending on the environment. Technology plays an important
role in mediating socio-cultural changes that occurs via multiple processes
and at multiple scales. These cultural changes can also alter the cultural
equilibrium, if there is one. For example, a game-changing cultural innovation,
such as the transition from foraging to agriculture, could allow a population
to feed many more people; thus, a cultural innovation can alter the size of
the population (Creanza et al., 2017).

3.3 HUMAN GENETICS

The term “Genetics” is derived from the Greek word ‘gen’ which means
‘to become’ or ‘to grow into’. It is the science of inheritance which tries
to explain how characters are transmitted through generations. Genetics is
the scientific study of the laws of inheritance. Human genetics is defined as
the study of how genetic inheritance takes place in the human species, or
how inheritance of various characteristics from parents to children takes
place.
Scientists began to understand the mechanics of heredity and how evolution
works in populations long before molecular biologists identified the genetic
basis of evolutionary change. With the discovery of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) molecule in 1953 by Watson and Crick, scientists came to understand
how genetic information is stored in the chromosomes of a cell. Genes,
specific portions of DNA molecules, direct the synthesis of the protein
molecules upon which all living organisms depend. Through the process of
biological reproduction, each of us inherits a combination of genes from our
biological parents that creates a unique new individual.
Concept of gene
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. In humans, genes
vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
Genes are present in two copies, one inherited from each parent in every
person. Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of genes
(less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between individuals.
Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequence
of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each human’s unique
40 physical features.
Each chromosome contains many genes which in turn are made up of DNA. Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology
James Watson and Francis Crick were the first scientists to formulate an
accurate description of the molecule DNA’s complex, double-helical structure.
The inception of a three-dimensional, double-helical model for the structure
of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953 paved way to open up genetic
components in detail. Let us learn the characteristic features of the DNA
model:
 DNA is a double-stranded helix, with the two strands connected by
hydrogen bonds. Adenine bases are always paired with Thymines and
Cytosiness are always paired with Guanines.
 Most DNA double helices are right-handed; that is, if you were to hold
your right hand out, with your thumb pointed up and your fingers curled
around your thumb, your thumb would represent the axis of the helix
and your fingers would represent the sugar-phosphate backbone. Only
one type of DNA, called Z-DNA, is left-handed.
 The DNA double helix is anti-parallel, which means that the 5' end of
one strand is paired with the 3' end of its complementary strand (and
vice versa). As shown in Figure, nucleotides are linked to each other
by their phosphate groups, which bind the 3' end of one sugar to the
5' end of the next sugar.
 Not only are the DNA base pairs connected via hydrogen bonding,
but the outer edges of the nitrogen-containing bases are exposed and
available for potential hydrogen bonding as well. These hydrogen bonds
provide easy access to the DNA for other molecules, including the
proteins that play vital roles in the replication and expression of DNA.
Crick went on to do fundamental work in molecular biology and
neurobiology. Watson became the Director of the Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory and headed up the Human Genome Project in the 1990s.

Fig. 1: Structure of DNA

Source: http://logyofbio.blogspot.com 41
Introducing Biological
Anthropology Check Your Progress 2
4) Write a short note on the process of acclimatization.
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5) What is human genetics?
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3.4 HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a child.
Development is progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as
head support, speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating with
other people. “Though growth and development may occur simultaneously,
they are distinct biological processes. Growth may be defined as a
quantitative increase in size or mass. Measurements of height in centimeters
or weight in kilograms indicate how much growth has taken place in a child.
Additionally, the growth of a body organ, such as the liver or the brain,
may also be described by measuring the number, weight, or size of cells
present. Development is defined as a progression of changes, either
quantitative or qualitative, that lead from undifferentiated or immature state
to a highly organized, specialized and mature state” (Bogin, 1999). In short,
in biological systems, growth is a quantifiable change in size,
while development indicates a transformation of structure. A very simple
example of this concept is a small caterpillar that eats lots of leaves and
grows large.
The assessment of growth and development is very helpful in finding out
the state of health and nutrition. Continuous normal growth and development
indicates a good state of health and nutrition. Abnormal growth or growth
failure is a symptom of disease. Hence, measurement of growth is an essential
component of the physical examination. There are various measurements that
are used to measure growth. These are: weight, height, head circumference,
mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) Plan, the eruption of teeth, etc. The
purposes behind monitoring of growth are manyfold viz. early detection of
abnormal growth and development, facilitating early treatment or correction
of any conditions that may be causing abnormal growth and development,
providing an opportunity for giving health education and advice for the
prevention of malnutrition.
The factors that promote development include good nutrition, emotional
support, play and language training. In monitoring development, we notice
at what age the child achieves various milestones, such as smiling at the
mother, sitting without support, grasping objects with his/her hands, standing,
walking and talking. It would be interesting record at what age the child
has achieved the various milestones.
There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of
42 growth and development. These principles or characteristics describe typical
development as a predictable and orderly process; that is, we can predict Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology
how most children will develop and that they will develop at the same rate
and at about the same time as other children. Although there are individual
differences in children’s personalities, activity levels and timing of developmental
milestones, such as ages and stages, but the principles and characteristics
of development are universal patterns. The major principles that characterize
the pattern and process of growth and development are as follows:
 Development proceeds from the head downward: This is called the
cephalocaudle principle. This principle describes the direction of growth
and development. According to this principle, the child gains control
of the head first, then the arms and then the legs.
 Development proceeds from the center of the body outward: This is
the principle of proximo-distal development that also describes the
direction of development. This means that the spinal cord develops
before outer parts of the body.
 Development depends on maturation and learning: Maturation refers to
the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The
biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new
abilities.
 Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex:
Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve
problems. For example, learning relationships between things (how things
are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive
development.
 Growth and development is a continuous process: As a child develops,
he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become
the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.
 Growth and development proceed from the general to specific: The
infant’s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected and
reflexive, waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep
toward an object. Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more
refined (smaller) muscle movements.
 There are individual rates of growth and development: Each child is
different and the rates at which individual children grow are different.
Although the patterns and sequences for growth and development
are usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual
children reach developmental stages will be different.
Human stages of growth and development are differentiated by age and key
stages of scientifically supported psychomotor development. Psychomotor
development is progress in mental and motor skill activity. The process of
growing and developing begins on the cellular level even before conception
in the womb and continues throughout life until death. Human growth can
be divided into stages according to age. Most human stages of growth and
development occur in infancy, childhood and adolescence (Beall, 2000).
Important stages of human growth and development are given below (Human
growth and development, n. d.).
43
Introducing Biological a) Infancy
Anthropology
A baby is considered an infant from birth through the first year of life.
During this first year, babies develop skills that will be lifelong resources.
Learning how to control the head, move by crawling and sit are called
gross motor skills. Using the thumb and finger to pick up pieces of
food and hold a pacifier are called fine motor skills.
b) Childhood
After age of 1 year, a child’s growth slows down considerably. The
toddler years are more mobile and exploratory. Middle childhood occurs
at about the age of 6 years and children have a better sense of right
and wrong then.
c) Juvenile
As children approach the ages of 9 and 10 years, they become more
independent and might start noticing the physical changes of puberty.
A major growth spurt can occur at this time as the body begins sexual
development.
d) Adolescence
From ages 12 to 18 years, children experience distinct mental
and physical changes. It is the transitional period in a person’s life
between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence is commonly defined
as the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty, when sexual
maturity or the ability to reproduce is attained.
e) Adulthood
Adulthood is often noted when a person is considered chronologically,
legally and behaviorally ready to hold responsibilities such as
operating a motor vehicle, voting, taking the vows of marriage, entering
into a contract and serving in the armed forces.
f) Senescence
Senescence is considered the stage of negative growth. During this stage,
structure and functions of organ of body decline or deteriorate. The
biological ageing produces progressive and irreversible changes affecting
most of the body organs and leading a gradual decline in all the activities
of an individual.
Check Your Progress 3
6) What are the major stages of human growth? Explain any two stages.
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3.5 SUMMARY
Biological Anthropology is one of the major branches of Anthropology with
several subfields. This branch majorly consists of Human Evolution, Human
44 Variation and Adaptation, Human Genetics and Human Growth and
Development. The unit has tried to incorporate the types and mechanism Fundamentals and Sub-fields of
Biological Anthropology
of human evolution and the theories put forward by Lamarck, Darwin along
with the criticism faced by them. The concept of adaptation to geographic
variations and the physiological effects visible in form of skin color, high
altitude adaptations, etc. temporary or long-term has been discussed. The
discovery and structure of DNA and its use thereafter in studying human
evolution are important aspects of biological anthropology. This units also
gives a background in human growth and development from before birth,
through childhood, into adulthood and through death and grief.

3.6 REFERENCES
Alemseged, Z., Spoor, F., Kimbel, W. H., Bobe, R., Geraads, D., Reed,
D., & Wynn, J. G. (2006). A Juvenile Early Hominin Skeleton from Dikika,
Ethiopia. Nature, 443(7109), 296.
Balter, M. (2005). Are Humans Still Evolving? Science, 309(5732), 234-
237.
Beall, C. M. & Steegmann Jr. A. T. (2000). Human Adaptation to Climate:
Temperature, Ultraviolet Radiation and Altitude. In Human Biology: An
Evolutionary and Biocultural Perspective, eds. S. Stinson, B. Bogin, R. Huss-
Ashmore and D. O’Rourke, pp. 163–224. New York: John Wiley.
Bogin, B. (1999). Patterns of Human Growth (Vol. 23). Cambridge
University Press.
Creanza, N., Kolodny, O., & Feldman, M. W. (2017). Cultural Evolutionary
Theory: How Culture Evolves and why it Matters. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 114(30), 7782-7789.
Growth and Development Essay. (n. d.). Brightkite. Accessed on: April 18,
2018. Retrieved From: https://brightkite.com/essay-on/growth-and-
development-4
Human Growth and Development. (n. d.). Accessed on: April 19, 2018.
Retrieved from: http://courses.aiu.edu/Human%20Growth%20and%
20Development/1/01.Human%20Growth%20Development.pdf
Relethford, J. H. (2010). The Human Species: An Introduction to
Biological Anthropology, (Ed. 8). State University of New York. Mc Grew
Hills.
Ryan, A. S. (Ed.). (2002). A Guide to Careers in Physical Anthropology.
Greenwood Publishing Group.

3.7 ANSWERS HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Mosaic Evolution refers to the differential evolution of component parts
of an organism. That is, all the parts of the organism do not change
at the same rate in the course of evolution and all parts of the organism
do not change in the same time period. For further details kindly refer
section 3.1
45
Introducing Biological
Anthropology 2) As an example of the specialization and modification acquired by an
organ, Lamarck suggested the case of giraffes. Lamarck was of the
opinion that the giraffes had small necks and were used to feeding
on short herbs. When the herbs became scanty, the ancestral forms
were obliged to browse on the leaves of trees. In attempting to do
this, they had to stretch their necks. After continuous stretching, the
change became substantial, resulting in an extraordinary long neck
which was generation after generation.
3) The synthetic theory considers evolution to be the result of changes
in the gene frequency of population. These changes produce variations.
These variations lead to effective adaptation to the environment.
Changes in gene frequency occur through the impact of the forces
of evolution such as selection, mutation, isolation and genetic drift,
gene flow or migration or hybridization. For further details kindly refer
page no. 36.
4) Acclimatization is another kind of physiological response to environmental
conditions and it can be short-term, long-term, or even permanent.
These responses to environmental factors are partially influenced by
genes, but some can also be affected by the duration and severity
of the exposure, technological buffers (such as shelter or clothing) and
individual behavior, weight and overall body size. The simplest type
of acclimatization is a temporary and rapid adjustment to
an environmental change. Tanning is a kind of acclimatization.
5) Human genetics is defined as the study of how genetic inheritance
takes place in the human species, or how inheritance of various
characteristics from parents to kids takes place.
6) Human growth can be divided into six stages according to age. These
stages are: (a) Infancy (b) Childhood (c) Juvenile (d) Adolescence
(e) Adulthood and (f) Senescence. For the details of stages kindly
refer section 3.4.

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