Weeks 13-15

(November 7- 25, 2022) SYNTAX

Syntax is the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences.
Many times, the word syntax is used synonymously with the term “sentence structure or
sentence patterns.”

Pre-Competency Checklist

At the end of these weeks, the students should be able to:

a. differentiate linguistic terms in syntax (the parts of speech. grammar vs. syntax,
etc.);
b. identify the parts of speech in individual units, phrases and clauses;
c. review the grammatical rules for competent language learning;
d. use syntactic rules in creating correct phrases, clauses, sentences, and
paragraphs; and create a teaching-learning material (i.e. grammar worksheet) for
syntactic study.

Learning Resources

The contents of this chapter were taken from the following learning resources:

1. Altenberg, E.P., & Vago, R.M. (2010). English Grammar: Understanding the Basics.
Cambridge University Press
2. Brown, S. & Attardo, S. (2000, 2005). Understanding Language Structure,
Interaction, and Variation. The University of Michigan Press.
3. Conda, A.F., & Anonas, L.S. (1997). English Plus: Grammar Review. AMS Press
4. Ellis, M. (2022, April 4). Verbs: The Definitive Guide. Grammarly Blog. Retrieved
from https://www.grammarly.com/blog/verbs/
5. English Grammar (n.d.). Subject and Predicate Worksheet. Retrieved from
https://www.englishgrammar.org/subject-predicate-worksheet/
6. Najafi, H., & Bonn, A., (2021, October 30). Verb Forms Overview & Examples.
Study.com. Retrieved from https://study.com/learn/lesson/verb-forms-overview-
examples.html
7. Payne, T. (2011). Understanding English Grammar. Cambridge University Press,
New York.
 8. Rambo, R. (2019). Simple, compound, and complex sentences. Writing Center at
Texas A&M. Retrieved from
http://facultyweb.ivcc.edu/rrambo/eng1001/sentences.htm
9. Sentence patterns – what they are and how to use them. (2019). A Research Guide.
Retrieved from https://www.aresearchguide.com/sentence-
patterns.html#:~:text=What%20is%20a%20sentence%20pattern%3F,to%20form
%20a%20meaningful%20sentence
10. Simple Subject. (n.d.). Reading Worksheets, Spelling, Grammar, Comprehension,
Lesson Plans. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from
https://www.k12reader.com/term/simple-subject/
11. Subject Predicate Lesson - Elementary Sentence Lessons & Tests - My
Schoolhouse - Online Learning. (n.d.). Copyright © 1999-2018 Educational
Designers, All Rights Reserved. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from
http://www.myschoolhouse.com/courses/o/1/55.asp
12. Subject and predicate worksheet. (2016, September 3). Home of English Grammar.
Retrieved September 14, 2022, from https. ://ww w. englishgrammar .org/subject-
predicate-worksheet/
13. Subject-Verb Agreement | Examples and Rules. (n.d.). GrammarBook.com.
Retrieved September 14, 2022, from
https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
14. Westin, D. (n.d.). Kinds of Subject Verb Agreement. The classroom. Retrieved
from https://www.theclassroom.com/kinds-subject-verb-agreement-8177455-html

Explore

Putting together morphemes to form sentences is the area covered by syntax.

Syntax is based on the idea of grammaticality. A sentence is said to be grammatical if
the speakers of the language agree that it is a sentence that they would produce under
the appropriate circumstances. Thus

(1) The book is on the table

will be accepted as grammatical by all speakers of English, while

(2) *Table the on is book

will not. Accordingly, the ungrammatical sentence is marked with an asterisk (*),
which shows that the sentence is unacceptable.
 The goal of syntax is to describe all grammatical sentences of English, or any other
language, and show why the ungrammatical sentences aren’t acceptable.

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech
indicates how the word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the
sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part of speech when used in
different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the
correct definition of a word when using the dictionary.
1. Noun
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with
an article (the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter;
common nouns do not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show
possession by adding 's.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
Concrete Nouns – Newspaper Pillow. (tangible)
Abstract Nouns – Love Honestly (intangible)
Singular Nouns – Box Pen (one)
Plural Nouns – Boxes Pens (many)
Count Nouns – Bottles Apples. (singular and plural)
Noncount Nouns – Imagination Tea (singular only)
Proper Nouns – Jose GMA Network (specific names)
Common Nouns – Person Company (non-specific names)
Compound Nouns – Shock wave Grandmother (combined words)
Collective Nouns – Crowd Class (groups)
Possessive Nouns – Berna’s James’ (show ownership)

2. Pronoun

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. We often use them to avoid
repeating the nouns that they refer to. Pronouns have different forms for the different
ways we use them.

As Melissa entered the door of the dimly lit Cathedral, Melissa held tightly to
Melissa’s backpack. Suddenly, Melissa thought that Melissa saw a shadow moving. ‘‘This
is scary,’’ whispered Melissa to Melissa.
 What’s strange about the sentences in the above text? What is strange is that
they’re missing pronouns, words that replace nouns in a sentence. You’ll probably agree
that these next sentences are a vast improvement on the first version:

As Melissa entered the door of the dimly lit Cathedral, she held tightly to her backpack.
Suddenly,she thought that she saw a shadow moving. ‘‘This is scary,’’ whispered Melissa
to herself

Personal – I, you, he, she, it

Relative – who, which, that, whoever
Demonstrative – this, that, these, those
Interrogative – who, which, what
Reflexive – myself, yourself, himself
Indefinite – any, anyone, anything, few, someone

3. Verb

Verbs are words that represent actions that are external (run, jump, work) and
internal (love, think, consider). Without verbs, you can’t do anything, you can’t feel
anything—you can’t even be anything. Verbs show what the subject is doing or feeling,
even if they’re just existing.

Types of Verbs
Action Verbs
Action verbs are words that express action (give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession
(have, own, etc.). Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

• Transitive Verbs
A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb, called the
direct object.

Laurissa raises her hand.

The verb is raises. Her hand is the object receiving the verb’s action. Therefore,
raises is a transitive verb. Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name
the object to whom or for whom the action was done.

Abdus gave Becky the pencil.

The verb is gave. The direct object is the pencil. (What did he give? The pencil.)
The indirect object is Becky. (To whom did he give it? To Becky.)

• Intransitive Verbs
An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive
verb may be followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its
action.

Linking Verbs
A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective that
renames or describes the subject. This noun or adjective is called the subject complement.

Jason became a business major.

The verb, became, links the subject, Jason, to its complement, a business major.

Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional
information regarding aspects of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has, etc.).
The main verb with its accompanying helping verb is called a verb phrase.
Teju is (helping verb) going (main verb) to Florida.

The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb) dangerous.

The following words, called modals, always function as helping verbs:

can must ought to will might

may shall should could would

Tanya could learn to fly helicopters. (Could helps the main verb, learn.)
Janine will drive to Idaho tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.)

Verb Forms
Infinitives – to go, to run, to kill
Present Participles – sleeping
Past Participles – worked, flew
 4. Adverb

An adverb usually modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; but at times it
modifies other parts of speech and even phrases, clauses, and whole sentences
He ran fast [Fast modifies the verb ran]
The class considered the test unusually easy. [Unusually modifies the adjective
easy]
She sang very beautifully [Very modifies the adverb beautifully]
He walked almost into the trap [Almost modifies either the preposition into or the
phrase into the trap]
They told us exactly how we were to do it. [“Exactly” modifies either the
conjunction “how” or the clause “how we were to do it”]
Evidently, you think so too. [“Evidently” modifies the rest of the sentence, you think
so too.]

5. Adjective
An adjective is a word that refers to an attribute, such as color, size, shape,
temperament, or other property concept. When we think of adjectives, most of us think
of modifiers of nouns within noun phrases, such as the following:

Green leafy vegetables

Big fat companies

This can be called the ATTRIBUTIVE FUNCTION, and is certainly one of the major
functions of adjectives, though syntactic elements of several other categories can also
function in this way.

Another major function of adjectives is to contribute to the main meaning of a predicate,

as in the following examples:

My holiday became very long.

The salad dressing smells bad.

This is sometimes called the PREDICATIVE FUNCTION of adjectives.

The concepts that are expressed by adjectives can be subdivided into the following types
of properties:

AGE (young, old . . .)

SPEED (fast, slow, quick . . .)
 VALUE (good, bad . . .)
HUMAN PROPENSITY ( jealous, happy, clever, wary . . .)
DIMENSION (big, little, tall, short, long ...)
SHAPE (round, square . . .)
COLOR (black, white, red . . .)
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (hard, heavy, smooth . . .)
NATIONAL ORIGIN (Japanese, Hungarian, English . . .)

6. Preposition

Prepositions are grammatical functors that precede determined noun phrases

(DPs) to specify the SEMANTIC ROLE of the DP to the rest of the clause. Prepositions
may indicate spatial relationships, such as position/direction, relative position, and
passage. They may also be used to refer to temporal relationships such as position in
time and duration. Other meanings may be conveyed via the use of prepositional phrases
including causes and accompaniment.
Examples:

along above across after against

about among around as at
between before by below in
down beyond behind excluding beside
for during into till on

Some prepositions are made up of more than one piece, including out of, by means
of, in spite of, instead of, up to, up against, on top of, upon, etc. Many prepositions also
function as post-verbal particles, as in get in, pick up, switch off. These are called
PHRASAL VERBS.

7. Conjuction

Conjunctions are grammatical functors that serve to connect words, phrases, or

clauses to form complex constructions. Subtypes of conjunctions include the following:

• COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. Conjoin two units that are “equal” in terms

of their syntactic status, i.e., they must be of the same word class or PHRASAL
CATEGORY, and they must have the same syntactic function. There are about
six words that can function as coordinating conjunctions in CSE. These are: and,
but, or, for, then, and yet. There are also three or four complex coordinating
conjunctions, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, and yet, and and then. Coordinating
conjunctions always occur in between the two structures that are conjoined.
Examples:
Neither they nor we have got any right to be content.
That’s either two years or a year between them.
You can’t live with them, and yet they’re everywhere.

• SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. Conjoin two units that may have distinct

syntactic or discourse functions. The unit that follows a subordinating conjunction
is DEPENDENT in some way on the other unit. Subordinating conjunctions include:
after, because, although, if, before, since, though, unless, when, now that, even
though, only if, while, as, whereas, whether or not, since, in order that, while, even
if, until, so, in case, etc.
Examples:
The congress is seen as a sort of unfortunate if necessary check and control on the
presidency.
Because these are biologically active compounds, they don’t follow the simple chemical
processes . . .
So tell me, after defending this country for 150 years and four wars, how would you like
to really serve your country?
8. Interjection
Interjections don’t belong in sentences. They make up sentences of their own.
Consider the following examples, each of which would be used alone to form a complete
sentence.
Examples:
Wow! Ouch!
Hello! Oh!

PHRASES AND CLAUSES

PHRASE - is a group of related words having neither a subject nor a predicate but
used as though it were a single word. Since it lacks both subject and predicate, it cannot
make a statement.

A knowledge of the phrase and how it is used will suggest ways diversifying and
enlivening sentences. Variety in using phrases remedies the monotonous “subject-first”
habit. For example, the use of the participial phrase adds life and movement to style, for
the participle is an action word, having the strength of its verbal nature in addition to its
function as a modifier. The appositive-a word or phrase which usually stands next to a
word and means the same things as the first word-is also a very convenient device in
writing. The following sentences will show how the same idea may be expressed
differently through the use of several kinds of phrases.

Examples:
The woman in the room is my aunt.
She stayed at school for few hours.
I built a beautiful home.

Types of Phrases

• Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun

used as its object, together with any modifiers the noun or pronoun may have. It functions
as an adjective or an adverb.

Examples:
He is sleeping on the carpet.
He always speaks in loud voice

• Participle phrase

A participle phrase begins with a present participle (verb+ing) or past participle

including modifiers and other linking words.

Examples:
The men, standing by the tree, were quarreling.
Jasprit is interested to buy a TV stand made of wood.

• Gerundial Phrase

A gerund phrase is composed of a gerund and any modifier it may have. It always
functions as a noun.

Examples:
Sleeping early at night is good for health.
The habit of sleeping early at night reduce the risk of cancer.
 • Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and its modifiers. It is used as an

adjective, adverb or pronoun.

Examples:

Mr. Darren loves to play basketball.

I wish I had a brother to play with me.

• Absolute Phrase

An absolute phrase is composed of a noun followed by a participle. It is

grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence and as such, is never used as a
subject or as a modifier.

Examples:
The students standing side by side, sang the national song together.
Her baby calmed by a toy, Kiran continued to clean the kitchen

CLAUSE – a grammatical term that contains subject and predicate which serve as the
building block of a sentence.

Types of Clauses

• Independent clause - A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence.

Example:

1. We are searching for a new phone.

2. I will give you the reward.
3. She decided to leave me.

• Dependent clause - A clause that cannot stand alone because it does not have a
complete thought.

Example:

1. So we can feel comfortable.

2. If you promise to pass your examination.
3. When she knew the truth.
SENTENCES

1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The
subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about. The predicate tells something about
the subject. The predicate of the sentence contains the verb. The complete subject tells
whom or what the sentence is about.
Examples:
A. The sun was shining brightly.
The sun (subject) / was shining brightly (predicate).
B. The dogs were barking loudly.
The dogs (subject) / were barking loudly (predicate).
Types of Subject
1. Simple Subjects – the main word or words in a subject. It does not include any of
the modifiers that might describe the subject.
Example :
The black dogs ran across the beach and jumped into the water.
2. Compound Subjects – consists of two or more simple subjects that share a verb
or verb phrase. These subjects are joined by a conjunction such as and, or, or nor.
Because a compound subject consists only of simple subjects, it does not include
any of the words that modify the subjects.
Example :
Ryan or Ellie will call us when they get to town.

3. Complete Subject – the simple subject, or the main word or words in a subject,
along with any of the modifiers that might describe the subject. To identify the
complete subject in a sentence, ask yourself who or what performs the action in
the sentence. When determining the complete subject, remember to include both
the simple subject plus all of the words that modify it.

Examples :
Joshua’s road bike is much faster than his mountain bike.
 Types of Predicates

4. Simple Predicate – a verb or verb phrase—and that’s all. It doesn’t give any more
information about the verb or verb phrase, which is why the predicate is considered
“simple.” To identify a simple predicate in a sentence, ask yourself what the subject
does or is, but remember to focus only on the verb or verb phrase itself.

Example :
They went to a play on Saturday afternoon.

5. Compound Predicate – is two or more verbs or verb phrases that share the same
subject and are joined by a conjunction. A compound predicate may also include
additional words that give more information about the verbs or verb phrases in the
sentence. To identify a compound predicate in a sentence, ask yourself what the
subject does or is, being sure to pay attention to all the verbs or verb phrases in
the sentence and any words that give more information about them. Note that,
although a conjunction joins a compound predicate’s verbs or verb phrases, it is
not part of the compound predicate.

Examples :
The ducks flew overhead and landed in the water.

6. Complete Predicate – refers only to the verb or verb phrase in a sentence, a

complete predicate includes not only the verb or verb phrase but also all the words
that give more information about it. In this way, the predicate is complete, a
complete predicate. To identify a complete predicate in a sentence, ask yourself
what the subject does or is. Remember that a complete predicate includes the verb
or verb phrase plus all the words that accompany it.

Example :
Liam hit a homerun.

2. KINDS OF SENTENCE
• Declarative Sentence

-It is the most basic type of sentence. Its purpose is to relay information, and it is
punctuated with a period.
Simple declarative sentences can make basic statements, such as:
*The boy walked home.
*I love honey.
 *My mother is a nurse.

Declarative sentences can also be compound sentences.

*Jason doesn't know how to ski, so he's taking lessons.

Complex sentences can also be declarative:

*I ordered a latte when I got to the coffee shop.

If you really want to change it up, you can even use compound-complex sentences to
make declarative statements:
*Olivia doesn't enjoy dinner parties and she hates dressing up, although she does like
being with her friends.

• Interrogative Sentence
-Ask questions (or interrogate). These are direct questions, and they are
punctuated with a question mark.
For example:
*Why does the sun shine?
*Whose dog is that?
*Will Sherri get to keep all her lottery winnings?

Compound sentences can be interrogative:

*Who are you and why are you here?

Some examples of complex interrogative sentences are:

*When Martin gets in, can you give him this message?
*Can you call me when it's time to go?

Many interrogative sentences start with question words like "how" or "why," but others
are yes/no questions that begin with the verb instead of the noun. It is important to
remember that interrogative sentences still require a noun and a verb to be complete.

• Exclamatory Sentence
-It express strong emotions. They are similar to declarative sentences in that they
provide information, but they end in an exclamation point instead of a period.

*I said I wanted tacos!

*How well he sings!
 *Wow, he just won a gold medal!

You can make exclamatory sentences with compound sentences as well:

*Lauren didn't think she'd get into Stanford, but she was just accepted!

Some complex exclamatory sentences include:

*You make me worry when you ride your bike without a helmet!

Exclamatory sentences are most effective when they're short, but you can also use
them as compound-complex sentences:

*Since you helped me when I was young and inspired me to be a writer, I'm dedicating
my book to you!

Exclamatory sentences are often used in casual conversation and in written dialogue to
show emotion, but they are not typically useful in academic or expository writing. In these
more serious works, it's better to make your point with well-written declarative sentences
instead.

• Imperative Sentence
-It tell someone to do something. These can be in the form of friendly advice,
basic instructions or more forceful commands. Many imperative sentences end in periods,
but some of the more forceful demands may end in an exclamation point to highlight the
emotion.
For example:
*Please shut the door to keep out the bugs.
*Turn left at the bridge.
*Stop bothering me!

You'll find compound imperative sentences like this:

*Put your phone away and listen to me!

Some examples of complex imperative sentences include:

*Since Charlotte was up all night, please let her sleep this morning

And if you want to get more complicated, try out these compound-complex imperative
sentences:
*Please knock and ask to be invited in, unless there's an emergency.
 3. SENTENCE PATTERNS

A sentence pattern is an arrangement of words. This arrangement needs to be in

a grammatically correct structure. It means the placement of verbs and nouns should
be correct to form a meaningful sentence.
Apart from that, there are punctuations which play an important role in making a
sentence readable and understandable. Without the correct placement of words, you
can not express your thoughts properly while speaking. Same way, without proper use
of punctuations, you can’t express your thoughts effectively in writing. Note that the
structure and pattern differ for different languages.

Types of Sentence Pattern

• Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a
subject, a verb, and a completed thought.

Example ;
Joe waited for the train.
“Joe” = subject, “waited” = verb

• Compound Sentences
A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses
(or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words “FAN BOYS”:

For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So

Example :
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before
noon and left on the bus before I arrived.

• Complex Sentences
 A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent
clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a
complete sentence. A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more
dependent clauses.
Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to
separate the two clauses.
Example :
Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not
see them at the station.

Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the
dependent clause, as in the following:
Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to
separate the two clauses.
Example :
I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus
station before noon.

• Compound- Complex Sentence

A compound complex sentence is made up of more than one sentence joined by
a conjunction, and at least one of those sentence is complex. In other words, it is a
compound sentence with a dependent, or subordinate clause.

Examples :
(1) When I grow up, I want to be a ballerina, and my mom is proud of me.
(2) I will get to watch television, but first, I have to clean up the dishes after we
finish eating.
(3) We won the game, but my uniform was muddy because it rained the entire
time.

GRAMMAR RULES
1. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
When a statement’s subject and the verb expressing its action agree, the sentence
is said to have subject-verb agreement. This makes your work easier to read and assists
your reader in understanding who or what is doing in a particular way.
 First, determine the subject (the thing or person performing the action) and the
verb (the word that performs the action) in a sentence. The verb describing the subject’s
action should be single if the subject is. The verb must be multiple if the subject is.

Kinds of Subject Verb Agreement

•Compound Subjects Using “And” …
•Singular Nouns Using “Or” or “Nor” …
•Singular and Plural Nouns Using “Or” or “Nor” …
•Singular Subjects that Sound Plural. …
•Singular Subjects that End in “S..
•Collective Nouns. …
•Accompanying Expressions.

• Compound Subjects Using “And”

Writers should use a plural verb when a subject sentence has two or more nouns
or pronouns joined by the conjunction “and.” Given that Matt and Ryan are two distinct
individuals and “were” is a plural verb, the statement “Matt and Ryan were at the park.” Is
in accordance with subject-verb agreement rules.

• Singular Nouns Using “Or” Or “Not”

The writer should employ a singular verb when a subject’s sentence consists of
two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by the conjunction “or” or the conjunction
“nor.” Because only one of the two pens is present on the desk and “is” is a singular verb,
the subject and verb of the statement “The red pen or the blue pen is on my desk.” Are in
agreement.

• Singular And Plural Nouns Using “Or” Or “Not”

The writer should employ a singular verb when a subject’s sentence consists of
two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by the conjunction “or” or the conjunction
“nor.”
For example, only one of the two pens is present on the desk and “is” is a singular
verb, the subject and verb of the statement “The red pen or the blue pen is on my desk.”
Are in agreement.

• Singular Subject That Sounds Plural

The singular nouns “either,” “neither,” everyone,” “everyone,” anyone,” “nobody,”
and “no one” should all be used in conjunction with singular verbs even when they may
appear to refer to more than one person or thing. Because “everyone” refers to each
individual “body,” or person, the verb “likes” is singular in the statement “Everybody likes
my mom’s cuisine.”

• Singular Subject That End In “S”

Even though they finish in a “s,” nouns like “mathematics,” “news,” and “social
studies” are singular and should be followed by singular verbs. Because mathematics is
one discipline, the verb “is” is singularly used in the statement “Mathematics is my least
favorite subject.”

• Collective Nouns
Although “team,” “group,” “band,” “family,” and “class” are nouns that refer to
collective entities, they nonetheless suggest the presence of multiple people. The band
has more than one member, however the subject “band” refers to the group as a whole
in the sentence “The band sings my favorite song.” The verb “sings” is singular.

• Accompanying Expressions
When a singular subject is followed by words like “with,” “accompanied by,”
“including,” and “as well,” it still retains its singularity and needs to be followed by a
singular verb. The singular verb “volunteers” is used in the sentence “My wife volunteers
at the preschool every Thursday, accompanied by her friend,” as the inclusion of the
phrase “accompanied by her friend” has no effect on the singularity of the sentence’s
subject

2. PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

A pronoun must agree with it’s antecedent in number (singular or plural) person
(first, second, or third) and gender (masculine ,feminine, or neuter).
Antecedent means that which comes before, it represents the world for which a pronoun
stands or to which it refers back.

Rule:
A singular pronoun must replace a singular noun, a plural pronoun must replace a plural
noun.
Thus, the mechanics of the sentences above look like.
Example:
President Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address in 1863
Singular ----------------- singular
Masculine--------------- masculine
Here are the nine Pronoun Antecedent Agreement rules. These rules found in subject
verb agreement

1.A Phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of
the antecedent.

Example: The can of time beans it’s on its shelf

singular prepositional singular
phrase

2. Indefinite pronouns as antecedents

*Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents

Example: Each of the clerk does a good deal of work around his or her
singular singular

• Plural indefinite pronoun antecedent require plural referents.

Plural – several, few, both , many
Example : Both do a good in their office.
plural plural

• Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be

either singular or plural.
Either singular or plural: some, any, none, all, and most

When the object of the preposition is uncountable use singular referent pronoun
Example: Some of the sugar fell out of its bag
singular singular

Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun

When the object of the preposition is countable use a plural referent pronoun
Example: Some of the marbles fell out of their bag
plural plural

Marbles are countable; therefore the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.

3. Compound Subjects joined by and always take a plural referent.

Example: Jones and Smith made their presentation
plural plural
4. With compound Subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with the
antecedent closer to the pronoun.

Example #1 (plural antecedent closer to pronoun):

Neither director nor the actors did their job.
Singular plural plural

Example #2 (singular antecedent closer to pronouns):

Neither the actors nor the director did his or her job.
plural singular singular

Note: Example #1, with the plural antecedent closer to pronoun, creates a smoother
sentence. Than the #2, which the use of the singular “his or her”.

5.Collective nouns ( group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) maybe singular or plural, depending
on meaning.

Example: The jury read it’s verdict

singular singular

The jury members gave their individual opinions.

plural plural

In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the referent
pronoun is plural.

The jury members disagree among themselves.

plural plural

In this example , the members are acting us twelve individuals; therefore the referent
pronoun is plural.

6. Titles of single entities.(books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular

referent.

Examples: The grapes of Wrath made it’s characters seem real.

singular singular

7.Plural from subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent.

 ( news, measles, mumps, physics, etc.)

Example: The news has lost much of its sting two days later
singular singular

8. Every or many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular referent.

Examples: Every cow, pig , and horse had lost its life in the fire.
singular singular

Many a girls wishes she could sing like Tina Turner.

singular singular
9. The number vs. a number of before a subject

*The number of is singular.

Example: The number of volunteers increase its ranks daily
singular singular

*A number of its plural

Example: A number of volunteers are offering their help.
plural plural

3. COMMON USAGE PROBLEMS

1. Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice

A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two independent clauses without
punctuation or the appropriate conjunction. A comma splice is similar to a run-on
sentence, but it uses a comma to join two clauses that have no appropriate
conjunction. Fixing a run-on sentence or a comma splice can be accomplished in
one of five different ways.
For example:
Incorrect sentence: “Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three
years old.”
So, a comma splice is when two or more independent clauses are joined with only
a comma.
Correct Sentence:
 Solution 1: Separate the clauses into two sentences. “Rachel is very smart. She
began reading when she was three years old.”
Solution 2: Replace the comma with a semicolon. “Rachel is very smart; she began
reading when she was three years old.”
Solution 3: Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very
smart, for she began reading when she was three years old.”
Solution 4: Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very
smart because she began reading when she was three years old.”
Solution 5: Replace the comma with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase.
“Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years
old.”
2. Pronoun Disagreement
Some of the most common grammar mistakes are pronoun errors. They occur
when pronouns do not agree in number with the nouns to which they refer. If the
noun is singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the noun is plural, the pronoun
must be plural as well.
For example:
Incorrect: “Every girl must bring their own lunch.”
Correct: “Every girl must bring her own lunch.”
Pronoun errors are common in modern English, as writers try to avoid awkward
phrasing or the implication of sexist language. Although this is an admirable goal,
it is still important to learn the correct grammar and use it in more formal situations.

3. Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage

Apostrophes are used to show possession. However, you do not use an
apostrophe after a possessive pronoun such as my, mine, our, ours, his, hers, its,
their, or theirs.
For example:
Incorrect: “My mothers cabin is next to his' cabin.”
Correct: “My mother's cabin is next to his cabin.”
In the case of it's, the apostrophe is used only to indicate a contraction for “it is.”
For example:
 Incorrect: “Its a cold day for October.”
Correct: “It's a cold day for October

4. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Confusion over subject-verb agreement can be the source of many grammatical
errors. When speaking or writing in the present tense, a sentence must have
subjects and verbs that agree in number. If the subject is singular, the verb must
be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural as well.
For example:
Incorrect: “These recipes is good for beginning chefs.”
Correct: “These recipes are good for beginning chefs.”

5. Misplaced Modifiers
To clearly communicate your ideas, you should place a modifier directly next to the
word it is supposed to modify. The modifier should clearly refer to a specific word
in the sentence. Misplaced modifiers can create confusion and ambiguity.
For example:
Incorrect: “At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”
Correct: “When I was eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”

6. Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are also common grammar mistakes. A sentence needs to
have a subject and a verb. A fragment often happens after another related idea
has been expressed.
For example:
Incorrect: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day. Because she was sick.”
Correct: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day because she was sick.”

7. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence expresses two complete and related ideas, and it usually
includes a conjunction to connect these two parts. There should be a comma
 before the conjunction to indicate the two ideas are related. If that’s missing, it’s a
mistake readers will notice.
For example:
Incorrect: “Jim went to the store and Ella went with him.”
Correct: “Jim went to the store, and Ella went with him.”

8. No Clear Antecedent
An antecedent is a word that comes before a pronoun and helps the reader
understand what the pronoun means. Generally, you can clear up this confusion
by rearranging the wording.
For example:
Incorrect: “The dad found the boy, and he was happy.”
Correct: “The dad was happy when he found the boy”

9. Ending a Sentence in a Preposition

Another common grammar mistake is ending a sentence with a preposition. A
preposition, by its nature, indicates that another word will follow it. In casual
conversation, this type of error is no big deal, but you should avoid this mistake in
your writing.
For example:
Incorrect: “What reason did he come here for?”
Correct: “For what reason did he come here?”

10. Mixing Up Spellings

There are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings.
If you mix these up, it can be an embarrassing mistake. These are a few of the
most commonly confused words:
“You’re” vs. “your”
“To” vs. “two” vs. “too”
“Weather” vs. “whether”
“There” vs. “their”
 For example:
Incorrect: “There father went to school there.”
Correct: “Their father went to school there

11. Mixing Up Similar Words

Sometimes, it’s not a matter of mixing up the spelling as much as an error in word
choice. There are many words that sound similar but have different meanings and
spellings. These include the following: “Affect” and “effect” “Except” and “accept”
“Comprise” vs. “compose” “Further” vs. “farther”
For example:
Incorrect: “The rain had a good affect on the farmer’s field.”
Correct: “The rain had a good effect on the farmer’s field.

12. Unnecessary Commas

While commas are important for clarity and give the reader a chance to pause in
the sentence, it’s possible to use commas when you don’t need them. These
unnecessary commas can be confusing to read, and they make writing look less
professional. Before you use a comma, think about why you’re using it. If you aren’t
sure it’s needed, double-check by reviewing comma rules.
For example:
Incorrect: “She had a stomach ache, because she ate too much ice cream.”
Correct: “She had a stomach ache because she ate too much ice cream.”

13. Mixing Up Possessives and Plurals

People often get confused when adding an “s” to the end of a word. When do you
need an apostrophe? In general, you use an apostrophe before an “s” to show
possession or as a contraction, like “that’s” for “that is.” If you’re just trying to say
something is plural, you don’t need the apostrophe. Like most rules in the English
language, this has some variation. However, if you keep the general guidelines in
mind, you’ll be correct most of the time.
For example:
Incorrect: “The dogs dish was full of bone’s.”
 Correct: “The dog’s dish was full of bones.”

14. Mistakes With Well and Good

One of the most common grammatical errors is mixing up “well” and “good.” In
general, “well” is an adverb, while “good” is an adjective. When you aren’t sure
which one to use, simply ask yourself whether an adjective or an adverb is
appropriate for the situation.
For example:
Incorrect: “I am doing good in math.”
Correct: “I am doing well in math.”

15. Comparisons That Are Incomplete

When you use a word that has a comparative aspect, you need to compare it to
something else. These common grammatical errors may appear in advertisements
or market slogans, but it does not work well in papers or other writing. If the word
requires a comparison, you should always provide it.
For example:
Incorrect: “My hair is smoother and softer.”
Correct: “My hair is smoother and softer than it was a month ago.”

16. Mixing Up Adverbs and Adjectives

If you mix up adverbs and adjectives, this can be an embarrassing grammar
mistake. This is the kind of error that can annoy a teacher or make the difference
between a great grade on an essay and getting marked down. This happens most
often with words that end in “-ly.”
For example:
Incorrect: “Susan gave me a real nice bouquet of flowers.”
Correct: “Susan gave me a really nice bouquet of flowers.”

17. Confusion Between Fewer and Less

Many people mix up “fewer” and “less.” If you’re talking about the amount of
something, you need to decide whether the item is all one thing or a group of many
 things. If it’s a group of many smaller things, you should use “fewer.” If it’s one
thing, you should use “less.”
For example:
Incorrect: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were less cans on the
shelves than there were yesterday.”
Correct: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were fewer cans on the
shelves than there were yesterday.

18. Title Capitalization Problems

Knowing when to capitalize the words in a title can be very confusing. In general,
you should capitalize the first and last words, all nouns and pronouns, all verbs,
and all adjectives and adverbs. However, there are specific title capitalization rules
depending on the style you are using.
For example:
Incorrect: “Around the world in 80 days”
Correct: “Around the World in 80 Days”