Reports

Characteristics of Reports

A report is a formal communication written for a specific purpose; it

includes a description of procedures followed for collection and
analysis of data, their significance, the conclusions drawn from them,
and recommendations, if required.

Reports can be used:

1- to suggest new ideas and options;

2- to ask people to accept a point of view;
3- to influence decisions;
4- to ask people to make choices between alternative recommendations.

TYPES OF REPRORTS:

Reports may be oral or written. An oral report is a piece of fact-to-face

communication about something seen or observed. Though it saves the
reports time it is more time-consuming for the receiver as he has to listen to
every word of the report. A written report is relatively more accurate and
permanent. It can be referred to again and again and is by its very nature
more formal than an oral report.

An effective report is:

• Appropriate to its purpose and audience

• Accurate

• Logical

• Clear and concise

• Well organized with clear section headings.

Report structure

One important advantage that a report has over other written communication
is that it follows a standardized format. This enables readers to find and focus
on specific parts of information. Most reports are modeled on the following
structure (modified where necessary)
 1- Title or title page
2- Contents list (Table of contents)
3- Abstract
4- Introduction
5- Discussion
6- Conclusions
7- Recommendations
8- List of Reference
9- Bibliography
10-Appendices
11-Glossary

The Format of a Report

1. Title or title page

It helps the reader to know what the report is about to have a title and
sometimes a brief explanation of the purpose of the report. In a longer report
you can have a short title and a long, more descriptive title. You should also
identify the audience for the report, who has written it (the authors) and
when it was written (the date).

The title page identifies the report with the following information:

• Title

• Author's name, position and qualifications

• Authority for report

• Place of origin

• Date.

2. Table of contents

The table of contents shows the section titles and major headings listed in
order of appearance and indicates page locations. Standard page numbering
begins with the Introduction. The Abstract or Executive Summary is usually
numbered with lower case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, etc.)
 3. Abstract/Summary

Normally only used in long and formal reports or if your work is being

published. It is the whole report summarized in 80-200 words. It tells the

reader what you examined and why; what you discovered; how you did it and

what conclusions you were led to. It is really a file note for a reader to see if

the whole document is worth reading. Sometimes you will be asked to

provide an abstract and the key words which give the reader an idea of what

is covered/relevant. It should include a summary of the following:

• Purpose

• Scope

• Achievements

• Main points

• Conclusions

• Recommendations.

4. Introduction

Should be quite brief. It can be a paragraph or a whole chapter but it

should tell the reader:

 The topic;
 Who commissioned (asked for) it and when;
 The reason for the report;
 The terms of reference and limitations;
 A brief outline of the background to the report;
 The method of working (if this is very detailed it might form one
of the Appendices)
 What sources have been used in researching the report (and
again, if these are numerous the detail should be in the
appendices and referenced)
  The key issues which will be addressed (another way of
‘signposting’).

5. Discussion (Body):

The discussion is the main body of the report. Use headings and sub-headings.
It describes, analyses, interprets and evaluates the procedures, data, findings,
relationships, visual material, methodology and results in the report. This
material should be presented in an order that leads logically towards the
conclusions and recommendations. In writing the discussion section of the
body, you should:

• Pitch at appropriate level

• Organize material logically

• Use clear, concise language

• Give concrete examples.

6. Conclusion

Conclusions are drawn from evidence, analysis, interpretation and evaluation

presented in the discussion. No new material should be introduced; the
conclusions should follow logically from the Discussion. The Conclusion
section should give:

• Conclusions

• Key points

• Main findings.

7. Recommendation

The Recommendation section (when used - not all reports give

recommendations) should present your informed opinions, suggestions,
possible actions to be taken, applications and recommendations arising from a
rational consideration of the discussion and conclusions.

• Be definite

• Be perceptive

• Be rational
 8. List of Reference
It is not only customary but also essential to give credit to the works
(published or unpublished) which you have used or quoted in your
report.
Ex: Alan Warner, A Short Guide to English Style, Oxford University Press,
London, ELBS Edition, 1964, pp. 40-42.
9. Bibliography
The bibliography lists the works which the author has read and to
which are consulted before or during the preparation of a report.
Ex: Palmer. Frank. Grammar. Second Edition. Middlesex. England:
Penguin Books 1 Limited, 1972.
10. Appendices
The appendix contains material which is needed to support the main
body of the report but is too detailed/voluminous to be included in the
text. Generally, the kinds of materials included in the appendix are
questionnaires, statistical data, samples of forms or data sheets used in
the investigation, detailed calculations, derivations of questions
illustrative materials, workout examples, documents, specimens, tables
of definitions and symbols, correspondence, summaries of results
achieved by other organizations, views of others on similar topics, and
other materials which must be included for record.
11. Glossary
A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and their
explanations.

Preparatory Steps to Writing Reports

An effective report is the result of a careful preparation and execution of the

plan. The following are important preparatory steps to writing a report:

 Define your purpose and scope

 Determine your audience
 Collect the data
 Organize the material
 Make an outline

DETERMINING THE PURPOSE AND SCOPE

Reports are produced in response to specific demands. Very often you

have clear instructions that tell you what you are required to do. For
 example, you may be instructed to prepare a report on the sales of your
company's products during the first quarter of a financial year, a piece of
information urgently required for a meeting of the heads of units
departments next morning.

DETERMINE THE AUDIENCE

A report is always written with an audience in mind. Generally speaking,

you will find that your report has any of the following six kinds of audience:

1- Superior officers
2- Colleagues, and counterparts in other organizations
3- Subordinates employees
4- Other organizations engaged in similar activities
5- Share-holders
6- Customers and members of the public.

 COLLECTING DATA

There are a number of methods and sources for collecting data. Choose
the ones relative to your purpose. They can be placed in the following
categories:

a. Methods
1. Personal Observation
2. Telephone Interview
3. Personal Interview
4. Questionnaires
b. Sources
1. Internal Records
2. Library

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

Personal Observation

Some reports will be based on your personal observation. For example, you
may be required to write a report on an experiment you conducted in the
laboratory, a job you performed or an event to which you were an eye
witness.
Telephone Interview

You can use this method if the information you seek is of a routine nature and
only brief answers are required from a small number of people you may
contact them on the telephone, and save time on travelling.

Personal Interview

It is also called a face-to-face survey, a method that is utilized when a specific

target population is involved. Its purpose is to explore the responses of the
people to gather more and deeper information. It is an art that demands
intelligence, patience, tact and courtesy on your part.

Questionnaires

When a wide geographical coverage is required and a large number of people

have to be contacted, the most efficient and convenient method is to collect
data through mail are questionnaires.

Sources of Data:

Internal Records

Most activities of an organization are recorded in written documents, letters,

memorandums, reports, contracts, agreements, transcripts of talks, orders,
office notes on files, etc. very often you will find that the relevant data for the
reports you have to write can be assembled from such records.

Library

A library is a place where written material is collected and kept for use by its
members. Here you can benefit from the library in writing your report.

Evaluation of Material

After locating the material (book, article in a journal, etc.) you should evaluate
it before you gather any information from it. One process of doing so is to
answer the following questions:

1. Is the author an authority in his field? Is he widely quoted? Etc.

2. Is the reputation of the publishers high?
3. Is the purpose for which the information was collected similar to yours?
4. What is the opinion of other specialist in the field about the material?
Note-Making:

Note-Making is a process of jotting important points, arguments, facts, or

ideas contained in written material.

ORGANIZING MATERIAL.

The best way to organize material is to prepare the outline of the report
before you actually start writing it. A brief outline such as the following will be
helpful:

ENVIROMENTAL POLLUTION

1. Introduction
1.1. Definition
1.2. Causes of pollution
1.2.1 Population growth
1.2.2 Increased productivity
2. Types
2.1. Air pollution
2.2 Water pollution

MAKE AN OUTLINE

This a difficult procedure to consider. However, you will discover a one which
will work for you. Following are few steps that may be helpful:

1. Go through the entire material you have gathered and think of possible
organization patterns.
2. Choose one pattern and jot down the topics and sub-topics as they
come to you.
3. Then arrange them on the basis of the principles discussed above.
4. Prepare a tentative outline demarcating the material that could go
under each topic and sub-topic.
5. Carefully examine it and make changes, if necessary.
6. Write out neatly the final outline.

Good Luck