Chapter 2

Systems Mathematical Models

The purpose of the system shown in
Fig. 1 is to have the azimuth angle of Quiz 1
the antenna, θo(t), follow the input
angle of the potentiometer, θi(t). The
input command is an angular
displacement. The potentiometer
converts the angular displacement
into a voltage. Similarly, the output
angular displacement, θo(t), is
converted to a voltage by the
potentiometer in the feedback path.
The signal and power amplifiers
amplifies the difference between the
input and output voltages. This
amplified actuating signal drives the
motor that rotates the antenna.
Draw block diagram for the
system shown.
Objectives
• We use quantitative mathematical models of physical systems to
design and analyze control systems. The dynamic behavior is
generally described by ordinary differential equations. We will
consider a wide range of systems, including mechanical, fluid,
electrical and thermal. Since most physical systems are nonlinear, we
will discuss linearization approximations, which allow us to use
Laplace transform methods.
• System: A combination of components acting together to perform
a specified objective. The components or interacting elements
have cause-and-effect (or input-output) relationships. One
example of a system is a direct-current (DC) motor where a
voltage input causes angular velocity (the output) of the
mechanical load attached to the motor's shaft.

• Dynamic system: A system where the current output variables (or

dynamic variables) are time dependent and depend on the initial
conditions (or stored energy) of the system. The dynamic
variables of the system. (e.g., displacement, velocity, voltage,
pressure) vary with time. For the DC motor example. the angular
velocity of the motor is the dynamic variable and the circuit
voltage is the input.
• Modeling: The process of applying the appropriate fundamental
physical laws in order to derive mathematical equations that
adequately describe the physics of the engineering system.
Dynamic systems are represented by differential equations. For
the DC motor example, the electrical circuit is modeled by using
Kirchhoff's voltage law and the mechanical motion is modeled by
using Newton's second law.

• Mathematical model: A mathematical description of a dynamic

system's behavior, which is usually a set of linear or nonlinear
ordinary differential equations (ODEs). For the DC motor
example. The mathematical model consists of a differential
equation for the electrical current and a differential equation for
mechanical motion.
• Simulation: The process of obtaining the system’s dynamic response by
numerically solving the governing modeling equations. Simulation
involves numerical integration of the model's differential equations and
is performed by digital computers and simulation software.
What is Mathematical Models of Systems
• Representation of a physical system by an equation or a set of
equations.
Why? Mathematical Models of Systems
• We use mathematical models of physical systems to design and
analyze controller.
• Obtaining the input–output relationship for components and in the
form of transfer functions.
How? Construct Mathematical Models of
Systems
• From knowledge of the physical characteristics of the system i.e. mass
for mechanical system or resistance for an electrical system ……..
• Mathematical Models can be determined by experimentation , by
measuring how the system out respond to the known inputs.
Steps of approach to dynamic system

Formulate the Write the Solve the

equations for Examine the If necessary,
Define the mathematical differential
the desired solutions and reanalyze or
system and its model and list equations
the redesign the
components the necessary describing the Input & output
assumptions assumptions system
model variables
 Case Study
Requirement
1- Draw block diagram of the
system.
2- Find the differential equation for
each component.
3- Find the transfer function.
4- Design PID controller for the
system.
 Simple mathematical model of motor vehicle
• Input accelerator pedal θ(t).
• Output forward speed U(t).
• The simple mathematical model might be,
U(t)=aθ(t) (neglecting the inertia) (2.1)
The constant a can be calculated from the available vehicle data.
―engine torque T , wheel traction force F, aero dynamic drag D ,‖
ΣF=0 • T=bθ(t) (2.2)
F-D=0 • F=cT (2.3)
F=D • D=fU(t) (2.4)
• Aero dynamic drag must be equal wheel traction force F
𝒄𝒃 𝑐𝑏
• D=F, fU(t)=cT, fU(t)=cbθ(t), U(t)= θ(t), a= (2.6)
𝒇 𝑓
• System called zero order system (instantaneous change)
Simple mathematical model of motor vehicle
• If c&b&d are not available then the model of motor vehicle could be
obtained by measuring U(t) for number of different θ(t)
 More complex mathematical model of motor
vehicle
• The car takes time to build up to the new forward speed , so to model the
dynamic characteristics of the vehicle this need to be taken in to account.
Mathematical models that represent the dynamic behavior of physical
systems are constructed using differential equations. A more accurate
representation of the
• motor vehicle would be
𝑑𝑢
• 𝑚 + 𝑓𝑢 = 𝑔θ(𝑡) (2.7)
𝑑𝑡
• If U(t) constant → 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑡 =0
ΣF=ma • 𝑓𝑢 = 𝑔θ(𝑡) (2.8)
𝑎
F-D=ma • 𝑢 = θ(𝑡)
𝑓
ma+D=F
Differential equations with constant coefficients
• In general, consider a system whose output is x(t), whose input is y(t) and contains
constant coefficients of values a, b, c. If the dynamics of the system produce a
first-order differential equation, it would be represented as
𝑑𝑥
• 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 𝑡 (2.9)
𝑑𝑡

• If the system dynamics produced a second-order differential equation, it would be

represented by
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑎 2 +𝑏 + 𝑐𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦 𝑡 (2.10)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• If the dynamics produce a third-order differential equation, its representation

would be
𝑑3𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑎 3 + 𝑏 2 +𝑐 + 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑓𝑦 𝑡 (2.11)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Differential equations with constant
coefficients
• Equations (2.9), (2.10) and (2.11) are linear differential equations with
constant coefficients. Note that the order of the differential equation is
the order of the highest derivative. Systems described by such
equations are called linear systems of the same order as the differential
equation. For example, equation (2.9) describes a first-order linear
system, equation (2.10) a second-order linear system and equation
(2.11) a third-order linear system.
• Note: The Linear differential equations with constant coefficient called
(linear time invariant)
Mathematical models of mechanical systems
• Mechanical systems are usually considered to comprise of the linear
lumped parameter elements of stiffness, damping and mass.
 Stiffness in mechanical systems

• An elastic element is assumed to produce an extension proportional to the force (or torque) applied
to it.
• For the translational spring
Force α Extension
• F 𝑡 = 𝑘(𝑥𝑖 𝑡 − 𝑥0 (𝑡))
• And for the rotational spring
Torque α Twist
• 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑘(θ𝑖 𝑡 − θ0 (𝑡))
• Note that K, the spring stiffness, has units of (N/m) For the translational spring
• The spring stiffness, has units of (Nm/rad) for the rotational spring
Damping in mechanical systems
• A damping element (sometimes called a dashpot) is assumed to produce a velocity
proportional to the force (or torque) applied to it.
• For the translational damper
• Force α Velocity
𝑑𝑥0
• 𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

• And for the rotational damper

• Torque αAngular velocity
𝑑𝜃0
• 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐶𝜔(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

• Note that C, the damping coefficient, has units of (Ns/m) For the translational damper
• And for the rotational damper(Nms/rad)
Mass in mechanical systems
• The force to accelerate a body is the product of its mass and acceleration
(Newton's second law).
• For the translational system
• Force α Acceleration
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥0
• 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑚𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑚 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• For the rotational system
• Torque α Angular acceleration
𝑑ω 𝑑2 θ
• 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝐼𝛼 𝑡 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In equation I is the moment of inertia about the rotational axis.
analyzing mechanical systems
• When analyzing mechanical systems, it is usual to identify all external
forces by the use of a 'Free-body diagram', and then apply Newton's
second law of motion in the form:
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑡 for translational systems
• 𝑀 = 𝐼𝛼 𝑡 for rotational systems
Example 2.1
• Find the differential equation relating the displacements 𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) and
𝑥0 (𝑡) for the spring—mass—damper system shown in Figure below
• What would be the effect of neglecting the mass?
Example 2.1

Solution
• free body diagram
Example 2.1
• Solution

• free body diagram

• Equation of motion
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑥0 𝑑2 𝑥
• 𝐾 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥0 − 𝐶 =𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑥0 𝑑𝑥0
• 𝑚 +𝐶 + 𝑘𝑥0 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) second order Differential equation
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 2.1
• What would be the effect of neglecting the mass?
• Solution
• free body diagram
• Equation of motion if mass =0
• 𝐹=0
𝑑𝑥0
• 𝐾 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥0 − 𝐶 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥0
• 𝐶 + 𝑘𝑥0 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖 (𝑡) first order Differential equations
𝑑𝑡
Example 2.2
• A flywheel of moment of inertia I sits in bearings that produce a
frictional moment of C times the angular velocity w(t) of the shaft as
shown in Figure .
• Find the differential equation relating the applied torque T(t) and the
angular velocity ω(t).
• the equation of motion is
• ∑𝑀=𝐼𝛼 𝑡
𝑑ω
• 𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑐𝜔 = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ω
• 𝐼 + 𝑐𝜔 = 𝑇 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
• Exercise
A high -speed solenoid actuator-valve system is shown in Figure below.
Derive the mathematical model of the mechanical system.

Solenoid actuator-valve system

• Exercise
The system can be simplified to.

Solenoid actuator-valve system

Gear Trains modelling
Example 2.3
• Figure shows a reduction gearbox being driven by a motor that
develops a torque 𝑇𝑚 (t). It has a gear reduction ratio of 'n' and the
moments of inertia on the motor and output shafts are 𝐼𝑚 and 𝐼0 , and
the respective damping coefficients Cm. and Co. Find the differential
equation relating the motor torque 𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) and the output angular
position θ0 (𝑡).
Free body diagram
Equations of Motion
are

• 1-Motor shaft
𝑑 2 θ𝑚
• 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑θ𝑚 𝑑 2 θ𝑚
• 𝑇𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑚 − aF t = 𝐼𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• re-arranging the above equation
1 𝑑 2 θ𝑚 𝑑θ𝑚
•F t = (𝑇 𝑡 − 𝐼𝑚 2 − 𝑐𝑚 )
𝑎 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equations of Motion
are:
• 2-output shaft
𝑑 2 θ𝑜
• 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑θ𝑜 𝑑 2 θ𝑜
• 𝑏𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑐𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• re-arranging the above equation
1 𝑑 2 θ𝑜 𝑑θ𝑜
•F t = (𝐼𝑜 2 − 𝑐𝑜 )
𝑏 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Equating equations of output shaft and motor
𝑏 𝑑 2 θ𝑚 𝑑θ𝑚 𝑑 2 θ𝑜 𝑑θ𝑜
• (𝑇 𝑡 − 𝐼𝑚 2 − 𝑐𝑚 ) = (𝐼𝑜 2 − 𝑐𝑜 )
𝑎 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Kinematic relationships
𝒃
=𝒏 𝜽𝒎 (t)=𝒏𝜽𝟎 𝒕
𝒂
𝑑θ𝑚 𝑑θ0
=𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 θ𝑚 𝑑2 θ0
2
=𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Hence ?
𝑑 2 θ𝑜 𝑑θ𝑜 𝑑 2 θ𝑜 𝑑θ𝑜
n(𝑇𝑚 𝑡 − 𝑛𝐼𝑚 2 − 𝑛𝑐𝑚 ) = (𝐼𝑜 2 − 𝑐𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2 θ𝑜 𝑑θ𝑜
𝐼𝑜 + 𝑛2 𝐼𝑚 2
2
+ (𝑐𝑜 +𝑛 𝑐𝑚 ) = n𝑇𝑚 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• The terms (𝐼𝑜 + 𝑛2 𝐼𝑚 ) and (𝑐𝑜 +𝑛2 𝑐𝑚 ) are called the equivalent
moment of inertia and equivalent damping coefficient Ce referred to
the output shaft.
Mathematical models of electrical systems
• The basic passive elements of electrical system are
resistance, inductance and capacitance as shown in Figure
Mathematical models of electrical systems
• For a resistive element Ohm's law states that

𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡
• For the inductive element the relationship between V(t) & I(t)

𝑑𝑖
𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Mathematical models of electrical systems
• For the capacitive element the electrostatic equation is

Q(t) = 𝐶(𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 )
• Differentiating both with respect to (t)
𝑑Q 𝑑
= 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 (𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• If both sides of equation integrated
1
(𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 ) = 𝑖𝑑(𝑡)
𝑐
Mathematical models of electrical systems

Resistive element 𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡

𝑑𝑖
Inductive element 𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

Q(t) = 𝐶(𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 )

𝑑Q 𝑑
Capacitive element = 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 (𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
(𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣2 𝑡 ) = 𝑖𝑑(𝑡)
𝑐
Mathematical models of electrical systems
• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
• The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that
junction. i2 + i3 = i1 + i4

• Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL)

• The sum of all the voltage drops around the loop is equal to Zero
𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝐴 = 0
Mathematical models of electrical systems
Example (1)
• Find the differential equation relating 𝑣1 𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 for the RC
network shown in Figure
Solution
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 +𝑣2 𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 +𝑣2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑣1 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Mathematical models of electrical systems
Example (1)
• Find the differential equation relating 𝑣1 𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 for the RC
network shown in Figure
Solution
𝑑𝑖
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + L +𝑣2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2 𝑑 𝑑𝑣2
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 + L 𝐶 + 𝑣2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑣2
𝐶𝐿 2
+ 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑣1 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Mathematical models of electrical systems
Example (3)
• Find the differential equation relating 𝑣1 𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 for the RC
network shown in Figure
 Mathematical models of electrical systems
Example (3)
• Find the differential equation relating 𝑣1 𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 for the RC network
shown in Figure
 Mathematical models of electrical systems
Example (3)
• 𝑣1 𝑡 − 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑅1 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑖2 𝑡 (3-1)
𝑑𝑣3
• 𝐶1 = 𝑖1 (𝑡) (3-2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
• 𝐶2 = 𝑖2 (𝑡) (3-3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2
• 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑣2 𝑡 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 (3-5) 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 − 5 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 3 − 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣2 𝑡 𝑑 2 𝑣2
• 𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 2 (3-6) 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 − 6 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 3 − 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑡 𝑑 2 𝑣2 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑣1 𝑡 − (𝑣2 𝑡 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 2 ) =𝑅1 𝐶1 2 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 2 + 𝐶2 2 (3-7)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒗 𝒕
• 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 + (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 +𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 ) 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒕 = 𝒗𝟏 (𝒕) (3-8)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Mathematical models of thermal systems
• Thermal resistance 𝑹𝒕
• heat flow by conduction is given by fourier's law
𝑲𝑨(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑻𝟏
𝑸𝒕 =
𝑳 𝐀 𝑸𝒕
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )=Temperature difference (K)
A = Normal cores sectional area 𝑚2
𝐿 =Thickness (m) 𝑻𝟐
K = thermal conductivity (W/mK)
𝑄𝑡 =heat flow (J/s)=W 𝑳
• Equation can be written in the same form of ohm’s law
𝑻𝟏 𝒕 − 𝑻𝟐 𝒕 = 𝑹𝑻 𝑸𝑻 𝒕
• Where 𝑹𝑻 is the thermal resistance and is
𝒍
𝑹𝑻 =
𝑲𝑨
Mathematical models of thermal systems
• Thermal capacitance 𝑪𝑻
• Rate of change in internal energy=m𝒄𝒑 x rate of change in temperature

𝒅𝑻
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 −𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑
𝒅𝒕
Q=heat flow (w)
m = Mass (Kg)
𝑪𝒑 = specific heat at constant pressure (J/Kg K)
𝑻= Temperature (K)
𝑪𝑻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 Thermal Capacitance
Example 1
Thermal capacitance
𝒅𝑻
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 −𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑
𝒅𝒕 T
Thermal resistance q
𝑻𝑳 −𝑻 TL
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 = 𝑹
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟎
Measuring water Temperature system

𝒅𝑻
𝒎𝑪𝒑 𝑹 + T= 𝑻𝑳
𝒅𝒕
Example 2
Thermal capacitance
𝒅𝑻 𝒒𝟐
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 −𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝒐
𝒅𝒕
Thermal resistance T 𝒒𝟏
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 = 𝒒𝟏
𝑻−𝑻𝒐
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 =𝒒𝟐 =
𝑹 Room Temperature system
𝒅𝑻
𝒎𝑪𝒑 𝑹 + T= 𝑹𝒒𝟏 + 𝑻𝒐
𝒅𝒕
Mathematical models of fluid systems
• Fluid Resistance 𝑹𝒕
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐
𝑸𝒇 =
𝑹
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )=pressure difference (Pa)
R = fluid resistance Ns/𝑚5
𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐

𝐑
Mathematical models of fluid systems
• Fluid capacitance 𝑪

𝒅𝒑
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 −𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 =𝑪
𝒅𝒕
Q= flow rate (𝑚3 /s)
𝑪= 𝐴/𝜌𝑔 fluid capacitance
P= pressure (Pa)
Example 1
Fluid capacitance
𝐪
𝒅𝒑
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 −𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝑪
𝒅𝒕
Fluid resistance
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒕 =q
𝒑𝟏 −𝒑𝟐
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒑𝟏 𝒑𝟐

Level control
𝜌𝒈𝒉/𝑹 = 𝒒
𝒅𝒉
𝑨 +
𝒅𝒕