Data vs information

Data
Data can be defined in many ways.
Information science defines data as unprocessed information.
• DATA is raw facts and figures.
• These have very little meaning until they are sorted or they are used to make calculations.
• The process of sorting or calculation data is called DATA PROCESSING.
• The result of data processing is INFORMATION.

Information
Information is data that have been organized and communicated in a coherent and meaningful
manner. Data is converted into information, and information is converted into knowledge.
Knowledge; information evaluated and organized so that it can be used purposefully.
• INFORMATION is the meaning that we attach to data.
• Without processing or additional information, data is often meaningless.

For example: What does the number 29061996 mean?

• Is it:
• A birthday? (29th June 1996)
• A bank account number?
• A club membership number?
• A telephone number?
Without processing or more information this data is meaningless

The three stages of doing tasks

• Data is put into the information system. (INPUT)

• The data is processed. (PROCESS)
• Information comes out of the information system. (OUTPUT)

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Data Vs Information

Data Information
Raw facts and figures Processed data
Data is meaningless Meaning in a given context

Information system

Information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data
and for delivering information, knowledge, and digital products or A combination of hardware,
software, infrastructure and trained personnel organized to facilitate planning, control,
coordination, and decision making in an organization.

The 5 components that must come together in order to produce a Computer-Based Information
system.

➢ Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the
computer itself and all of its support equipments. Among the support equipments
are input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices.

➢ Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals that
support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct
the circuitry within the hardware parts.

➢ Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful information. Like
programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until
the computer needs them.

➢ Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer
system.

➢ People: Every computer based information system needs people if it is to be useful.

This component that most influence the success or failure of information systems.

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Manual information system

Manual-based information system is one that does not rely on any computerised systems and a
computer-based information system does. A manual-based system will see information recorded
and kept in different ways such as in files in paper form.
Advantages
➢ A manual-based information system is generally considered to be cheaper than a
computer-based system.
➢ No training costs are needed, as the current system is very easy to use and doesn't need a
skilled employee.
➢ There is low set up costs. The shelves and the cabinets all together don't cost more than a
few hundred dollars.
➢ There are also no indirect costs. Ex. electricity bills

Disadvantages

➢ Having data stores manually in boxes or files is not very environmentally-friendly and this
could lead company documentation at risk if a fire broke out for example as there would
be no back up.
➢ It is much time consuming.
➢ If manual record book is lost data will be completely lost.
➢ Lots of Manual labour is required for record keeping.
➢ Many a times duplication occurs as workers are find it hard to keep track in the bundles of
registers.
➢ Data is stored in filling cabinets and can get in the wrong hands and can be used against
the company.
➢ Data is not always reliable as it is hand written and some human errors might have
occurred example wrong telephone number ECT.
➢ Retrieval of data is very slow as it has to be searched it has to be searched in lots of
registers and this waste lots of time.
➢ Mostly data is kept on registers and these are stored in filling cabinets and this consumes
a lot of space

Computer information system

Computer based information system will see data stored on various computer programs including
on databases, Word documents, Excel etc.

Advantages
➢ A computer-based information system may be considered to be more cost effective and
efficient than a manual system.
➢ It speeds up operations and can back up important information at the touch of a button.
➢ It is however very expensive to set up and may need to be maintained by IT technical
support advisors on a regular basis.

3
Disadvantages
➢ It is easy to change and edit information, without having to retype all the information,
which would take a long time to do. An example of this is if the user makes a mistake,
they can just correct the mistake without having to retype the whole document.
➢ Data may be lost in one go, e.g. If the computer crashed while the user was using it. It is
harder to lose an exercise book.
➢ Computers can get infected with viruses, which can cause loss of data and information
being stolen and books and paper cannot be infected by viruses.

Data vs information
Data
Data can be defined in many ways.
Information science defines data as unprocessed information.
• DATA is raw facts and figures.
• These have very little meaning until they are sorted or they are used to make calculations.
• The process of sorting or calculation data is called DATA PROCESSING.
• The result of data processing is INFORMATION.

Information
Information is data that have been organized and communicated in a coherent and meaningful
manner. Data is converted into information, and information is converted into knowledge.
Knowledge; information evaluated and organized so that it can be used purposefully.
• INFORMATION is the meaning that we attach to data.
• Without processing or additional information, data is often meaningless.

For example: What does the number 29061996 mean?

• Is it:
• A birthday? (29th June 1996)
• A bank account number?
• A club membership number?
• A telephone number?
Without processing or more information this data is meaningless

The three stages of doing tasks

4
 • Data is put into the information system. (INPUT)
• The data is processed. (PROCESS)
• Information comes out of the information system. (OUTPUT)

Information system

Information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data
and for delivering information, knowledge, and digital products or A combination of hardware,
software, infrastructure and trained personnel organized to facilitate planning, control,
coordination, and decision making in an organization.

The 5 components that must come together in order to produce a Computer-Based Information
system.

➢ Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the
computer itself and all of its support equipments. Among the support equipments
are input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices.

➢ Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals that
support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct
the circuitry within the hardware parts.

➢ Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful information. Like
programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until
the computer needs them.

➢ Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer
system.

➢ People: Every computer based information system needs people if it is to be useful.

This component that most influence the success or failure of information systems.

Manual information system

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 Manual-based information system is one that does not rely on any computerised systems and a
computer-based information system does. A manual-based system will see information recorded
and kept in different ways such as in files in paper form.
Advantages
➢ A manual-based information system is generally considered to be cheaper than a
computer-based system.
➢ No training costs are needed, as the current system is very easy to use and doesn't need a
skilled employee.
➢ There is low set up costs. The shelves and the cabinets all together don't cost more than a
few hundred dollars.
➢ There are also no indirect costs. Ex. electricity bills

Disadvantages

➢ Having data stores manually in boxes or files is not very environmentally-friendly and this
could lead company documentation at risk if a fire broke out for example as there would
be no back up.
➢ It is much time consuming.
➢ If manual record book is lost data will be completely lost.
➢ Lots of Manual labour is required for record keeping.
➢ Many a times duplication occurs as workers are find it hard to keep track in the bundles of
registers.
➢ Data is stored in filling cabinets and can get in the wrong hands and can be used against
the company.
➢ Data is not always reliable as it is hand written and some human errors might have
occurred example wrong telephone number ECT.
➢ Retrieval of data is very slow as it has to be searched it has to be searched in lots of
registers and this waste lots of time.
➢ Mostly data is kept on registers and these are stored in filling cabinets and this consumes
a lot of space

Computer information system

Computer based information system will see data stored on various computer programs including
on databases, Word documents, Excel etc.

Advantages
➢ A computer-based information system may be considered to be more cost effective and
efficient than a manual system.
➢ It speeds up operations and can back up important information at the touch of a button.
➢ It is however very expensive to set up and may need to be maintained by IT technical
support advisors on a regular basis.

Disadvantages

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 ➢ It is easy to change and edit information, without having to retype all the information,
which would take a long time to do. An example of this is if the user makes a mistake,
they can just correct the mistake without having to retype the whole document.
➢ Data may be lost in one go, e.g. If the computer crashed while the user was using it. It is
harder to lose an exercise book.
➢ Computers can get infected with viruses, which can cause loss of data and information
being stolen and books and paper cannot be infected by viruses.

Computer Hardware and Software

A Computer System
A computer is a digital electronic machine that can store, process, retrieve, and
enables you to manage information, perform repetitive tasks so quickly that in can
execute user commands in a short period of time.

A system is a set of related parts that operate together.

Computer system is a set of related digital electronic part that that can store,
process, retrieve, and enables you to manage information, perform repetitive tasks so
quickly that in can execute user commands in a short period of time.

Characteristics of a computer

➢ Digital describes the way in which data is represented in a computer. Computers

store data in codes which are based on binary digits (0 and 1). These codes can
represent characters and whole numbers.

➢ Electronic describes the technology through the tiny integrated circuits used by
computers to store and process data. Computers are made from microchips,
which are electronic devices. They operate by the movement of electrons
through the tiny circuits inside them.

➢ Information processing is a general term describing the work done by a

computer.

Advantages of a computer
➢ It is extremely fast in processing data

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 ➢ Accurate when provided with correct input (GIGO-garbage in, garbage out)
incorrect data input in to the computer, the computer won’t realise that it is
incorrect so it will give undesirable answer.
➢ Keeps large amount of information in small space: without computers every thing
was done manually on papers and files. All these took up a lot of space.
➢ A computer can work 24/7, 365 days and does not get tired.
➢ It also does job impossible for humans. Jobs such weather forecasting and
measuring the strength of an earthquake.

Disadvantages of a computer
➢ Requires trained staff
➢ Creates unemployment
➢ There is misuse of personnel information
➢ There can be a break down and there will not be a way to access information
➢ If there is power cuts information cannot be accessed at that time.
Computer Hardware and Software

Basic hardware components of a computer system

➢ System Unit: This is a rectangular box that performs all data processing
operations and it houses the Central processing unit, Cooling fan, Power
supply and also some storage device.
➢ Output device: These are devices that provide results in a suitable form
(Printout or screen display) after data processing. These devices include
devices such as printer and Visual display unit.
➢ Input Devices: These are devices used to get data and instructions in to the
system, include a keyboard and mouse.
➢ Memory Unit: These include material that are used to store data such as
Compact disk, Digital versatile disk called storage media and devices used to
access data from the storage media such as Hard disk drive, compact disk
drive called storage devices.

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Basic terms

A program

A program is a set of instructions, which control the operation/running of a computer

or program that run in a computer.

Once the program for a task as been loaded into a computer and starts running, the
computer will carry out the all the steps of the task automatically.

Hardware

Hardware: Term used for parts of a computer that you can touch and handle, these
devices make up the computer system, for example Processors, peripherals, memory
chips and storage devices.

Software

Software: term used for Programs or set of instructions that are designed to enable the
computer to tackle some task and cannot be touched and program that run in a
computer , for example if you want to type a letter you would need a word processing
software.

Computer peripheral

Computer peripheral: A peripheral is a device attached or outside the CPU or System

unit and It is under the control of the CPU, and can therefore be considered as
expanding the host's capabilities. E.g. Mouse, Printer, Hard disk, Compact disk drive

Hardware components of a Computer System

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The processor is the area of circuitry in a digital computer, which controls the running
of the computer and carries out the instructions such as adding, multiplying, comparing
and control peripherals.
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is the main part (Brain) of the
computer, it is an area of circuitry in a digital computer, which controls the running of
the computer and also controls the Input and Output devices.

The entire CPU is built on a single silicon chip called a microchip or microprocessor.

Speed of a computer

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The speed of a computer is measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz means 1 tick per second or 1
cycle per second. One Kilohertz (kHz) means 1000 cycles per second and one megahertz
means 1 million cycles per second. Pentium processor speed 1000 MHz = 100 million
Pentium is about 66MHz and Pentium III is about 1000 MHz.

Binary Form

A bit is the smallest piece of information a computer can handle, It takes either 1 or 0.
A computer uses one byte to represent a character. One byte is equal to 8 bits.

Page 49 information technology

Parts of the CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) has three main components. These are:

➢ immediate access store

➢ The arithmetic and logic unit,

➢ The control unit.

These three units are collectively known as The Central Processing unit (CPU).

1. Immediate access store

The Immediate access store holds data, instructions and results of the processing. No
information processed here, but rather stored here. The information is stored in a form
the computer will understand.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit

• Performs Calculations and logic operations.

This can be to obey specific instructions when required. E.g. adding two numbers
(arithmetic) or checking if two data items match (logic).

• Processing is carried out here

3. Control Unit

• Coordination of Input and Output devices

• Carries Instructions from Immediate access store to ALU
• Decode Instructions

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 Types of signal passed through processor and other
hardware

➢ Control signals: These includes signal sent out by the processor to the printer to
tell it to be ready to receive some data.
➢ Data signals: These are the group of digits that are used to represents
characters ( letters of alphabets, numbers ect)

Categories of Computers

Computers are classified according to characteristics such as

➢ Physical Size
➢ Cost of purchase
➢ Processing power/ speed
➢ Numbers of terminals or users that can connect to a computer and also storage
space
➢ Storage capacity

There are four categories of computers which include.

➢ Micro Computers
➢ Mini computers
➢ Main Frame Computers
➢ Super Computers

Micro computers: These systems are typically used in homes, offices and
schools. Processing is done by a microprocessor and can also be used by one person at a
time. Essential characteristics are:
➢ Small physical size
➢ Low purchase cost
➢ One user at a time
➢ Low processing power
➢ Less storage capacity
➢ Commonly used for personnel application
Micro computers can further be classified in to:

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Desk top computer:

➢ These would be typically being supplied with the hard disk and floppy disk drives
and peripherals such as mouse, Monitor etc.
➢ These are relatively cheap and easy to add expansion slots.

Palm tops and Personal Digital assistants

These are small hand held computers; they are usually supplied with software such
as a diary, contacts database, e-mail facilities and even spreadsheet. They usually
use a touch screen.

Mini Computers
Mini computers are a medium sized computer. It’s processing lies between that of a
microcomputers and main frame computer. Characteristics are
➢ Bigger in Physical size than Micro computers
➢ Expensive to purchase than Micro computers
➢ More than one user ( Usually 10 to 60 users)
➢ More processing power than Micro computers
➢ More Storage capacity
➢ Commonly used in medium sized business organisations, colleges, libraries and
small banks.

Main Frame Computers

These are large, powerful computers which is capable of supporting large number of
terminals.

➢ Bigger in Physical size than Mini computers

➢ Expensive to purchase than Mini computers
➢ More users than Mini computers
➢ More processing power than Mini computers
➢ More Storage capacity than Mini computer
➢ Commonly used in medium sized business organisations, colleges, libraries and
small banks.

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Super Computers
The more powerful Mainframes are called super computers which have been
developed from the processing requirement of advanced research projects by
scientists.
➢ Bigger in Physical size than Micro computers
➢ Expensive to purchase than Micro computers
➢ More users than Micro computers
➢ More processing power than Micro computers
➢ More Storage capacity than Micro computer

Example is Cray XMP from Cray Brand

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 Input Devices

An input device is a peripheral that accepts data and sends it to the central processing
unit. Data presented to an input device has to be in the right form for the device (e.g.
bar code reader will only accept bar codes).

Examples:
Of Manual input devices
1. The keyboard of a micro computer.
➢ A Braille keyboard.
➢ A concept keyboard.
➢ A musical keyboard.
2. A pH sensor.
3. A microphone
4. A game controller (Joystick)
5. A light pen.
6. A mouse.
7. A Scanner
8. Digital camera.
9. Touch screen
10. Graphics tablet
Of Direct input devices
A document reader (OMR, OCR and MICR).
➢ OMR ( Optical mark Reader)
➢ OCR ( Optical Character Reader)
➢ MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader)
➢ Barcode readers

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Keyboard

The standard QWERTY keyboard is the common way to enter text and numerical data
into a computer. Each individual key is a switch, which when pressed, sends a digital
code to the computer.

For example, pressing the 'A' key produces the binary code 01100001 representing the
lower case letter 'a'. Holding down the shift key at the same time produces the binary
code 01000001 representing the upper case letter 'A'.

ADVANTAGES: of keyboards
➢ Reliable for data input of text and numbers
➢ Usually supplied with a computer so no additional cost.
➢ Specialized keyboards are available.

DISADVANTAGES: of keyboards
➢ Users may be slow or not very accurate typists.
➢ Slow for accessing menus etc. and difficult to use if you want to move objects
around the screen.
➢ Difficult for people unable to use keyboards through paralysis or muscular
disorder

Braille Keyboard
Used by blind people. Usually combined with a voice recognition device.
➢ Useful for people who can’t see but can hear.

Light Pen

➢ Light pen is a pointing device, which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a

displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

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 ➢ When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed,
its photocell sensing element, detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Advantages of using a light pen

➢ It is more direct and precise than using a mouse.
➢ Good for graphics and drawings.

Disadvantage of using a light pen

➢ It can record only the presence or absence of light.
➢ It requires software written specially for it.

Mouse

Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a

small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.

Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at
the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be
used to enter text into the computer.

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Example of use of a mouse
➢ To select options from a menu or from a set of icons.
➢ To position the cursor when editing text or using a design package.
➢ To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or
deleted.
Advantages of using a mouse
➢ It is easy and convenient to use.
➢ It is not expensive.
➢ Most modern software and hardware includes an option to use it.
➢ It selects a position on the screen more quickly than is possible with a keyboard.
➢ Ideal for use with desktop computers.
➢ Usually supplied with a computer so no additional cost.
Disadvantages of using a mouse
➢ It cannot be used to input text easily – you still need a keyboard to do that.
➢ It is relatively slow for selecting the options from the menus. A user who is
familiar with the software can select options on the screen quickly with the
keys.
➢ It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
➢ It requires a flat surface to operate.

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Joystick

A joystick is a device, which enables the user to control movement on the screen by
manoeuvering a small lever. Joysticks are often used for playing computer games such
as flight simulators. They can also be used to control the movement of a wheelchair or
other machinery. They input directional data like a mouse but work by switches being
closed as the joystick is moved left or right and up or down. Mini finger-controlled
joysticks can be used to control a laptop cursor

Advantages of a joystick
➢ It allows the fast interaction needed in games.
➢ Easy to learn to use. Very simple design so they can be inexpensive

Disadvantages of a joystick
➢ It cannot be accurate in selecting options from the screen.
➢ Control can be a bit crude as the directions in simple joysticks are limited to
forward, backwards, left and right. Better models offer diagonal movement or
better.

Track ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball, which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball,
pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

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19
Touch screen

A Touch screen is a screen which data can be entered into a computer by touching the
screen with a finger. Items are selected just as if the finger is the mouse pointer or a
light pen. Sometimes a concept keyboard is used.

Advantages of touch screen

➢ Not extra peripheral are required except the monitor and the printer.
➢ The system is very useful where a keyboard or a mouse would become wet or
dirty. The screen can be positioned above and out of the work area.
➢ It is very useful for a person whose work involves standing and moving about.

Disadvantages of a touch screen

➢ It is not suitable for office use. It is tiring to keep reaching the screen to touch
it.
➢ It unsuitable for inputting large quantities of data. Selecting what is already in
the screen can enter data.

Graphics tablet

A graphics tablet (or digitising tablet) is a board, which can detect the position of a
pointing device on its surface. To digitise data means to convert data from an analogue
form to digital form.

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The tablet can be used:
➢ To hold the a drawing while the user copies on to the screen with the pointing
device;
➢ To hold a sheet of menus, icons and shapes to which the user can point to select
options. This allows the user to:
o have the whole screen free for drawing
o select from a very wide range of options.

In a graphics tablet, a pointing device is usually a usually a stylus (or pen).

Advantages of a graphics tablet

➢ It can be used to digitise data with great accuracy.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music. Used along with the voice Recognition software.

Advantages of speech recognition

➢ No typing or preparation of data is necessary.
➢ The system can be used remotely by telephone, or by those who are handicapped
or those who have their hands occupied.

Disadvantages of speech recognition

➢ The method does not give good results at the moment.
➢ Recognition of words is slow.
➢ The system is not suitable for use in noisy area without a shielded mouthpiece.
➢ Stored audio files can take up a lot of memory.

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DIRECT INPUT METHODS

Optical Mark Recognition

The device is called Optical Mark Reader

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by
pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.

It is system of reading lines or ‘marks’ which have been made in exactly the right
positions on card or document. It is used for questionnaires and multiple-choice
examinations. The device is called Optical Mark Reader

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

The device is called Optical Character Reader

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text and convert it to computer data.
OCR scans text optically character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code and stores the text on the system memory.

An optical character reader can recognise characters from their shape. As with OMR
(Optical Mark Recognition), light is reflected from the paper and from the ink. In OCR
however, the reader has to work out what the characters are. Scanners can be used to

22
 read text. The system relies on the sophisticated OCR software in the computer.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

The device is called Magnetic Ink Character Reader

An MICR reader recognises characters formed from magnetic ink on bank Cheques.
As the document passes into the reader the ink is magnetised and the characters are
recognised by the strength of the magnetism. This method is used in banking as every
cheque has a magnetic ink number at the bottom with the information concerning the
customer.

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to
be processed everyday. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

23
Magnetic Stripes Recognition

The device is called Magnetic Strip Reader

Magnetic stripes are thin strips of magnetic tape which are usually found on the back of
plastic credit and debit cards. When the card is inserted into a reader (in an Automatic
Teller Machine or ATM for example) the tapes slides past a playback head similar to
that used in a tape recorder. This reads the data from the stripe and passes it to a
computer

Examples of cards with magnetic stripes

➢ Credit card or bank card,

➢ Botswana Power Corporation metre card,
➢ Botswana Telecommunication Corporation card.

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Advantages of magnetic stripes

➢ They are simple to produce.

➢ They are not easily damaged.
➢ Each can store a large number of characters.
➢ They can down the amount of writing involved in a transaction.

Disadvantages of magnetic stripes

➢ The data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields.
➢ Scratching can damage the stripe.
➢ Very limited storage capacity.
➢ Not very secure as thieves can obtain the readers and alter the data.

New developments
New methods of storing data on cards have become available. They include:
➢ Laser cards:
o One can store 2 million characters.
➢ Smart cards:
o Have very thin memory chips sealed into them. Some of the data in them
can be changed. One card can store about 8000 characters. BTC card
phones use smart cards and also multichoice uses smart cards.

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Barcode Reading

Barcode Recognition

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books,
etc. It may be a hand-held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which
is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Used in supermarket, libraries, luggage and handling systems at airport etc. Bar code
reader connected to the cash register or computer is called a point of sale (EPOS)

Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)

➢ Cash register which also act like terminals to a main computer system.
➢ Provides customers with itemized billing

26
Electronic Fund Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS)
➢ Similar to the EPOS but a few additional features e.g. they are able to transfer
funds from the customer’s bank directly to the bank account of the shop.
Customer uses a card called debit card to make the transfer.

27
Bar codes
A bar code is set of parallel printed lines that of different thickness (usually
alternatively black and white), which represent a number. Usually the number
represented by the bars is also printed above or below it.
Bar codes are used on shop goods; the number coded identifies the product, usually
giving a number code for:
➢ Country of origin
➢ Manufacturer,
➢ An item number for the product.

NOTES:

➢ The price for the product is not included in the data on a bar code. This is
because prices change so often. Instead the price is stored in the computer and
when the price is needed it is retrieved from there.
➢ The code is printed as an actual number, therefore if the scanner cannot read a
bar code the number can be keyed in instead.
➢ A bar code has to be read by a scanner (bar code reader)

Advantages of bar codes

➢ Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods
➢ Staffs do not have to write down or key in the name of the item or its price.

Disadvantages of bar codes

➢ Bar codes are suitable foe recording prices. Customers still have to be informed
about prices (e.g. by labels or catalogues).
➢ Bar codes have to be read by a scanner or keyed in by the operator.
➢ Only numbers can be coded in this way.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of
the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital
form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are
printed.

28
Scanners are of two main types.
➢ A hand-held device, which is moved across to screen the picture being scanned.
➢ A flat bed scanner. The picture is laid flat on this and the scanner is remains
stationary on the table while the picture is being scanned.
Advantages of a scanner
➢ For a hand held scanner it is cheap and portable.
➢ For a flat bed it is very accurate and gives a high resolution picture.
Disadvantages of scanners
➢ Scanned pictures take too much storage space. This is because every dot on the
picture has to be stored.

Sensors
These detect changes in the physical or chemical environment and convert them into
electrical signals. These signals can then be digitized and used by the computer.
Sensors are often used when data logging.

Types of Sensors
➢ There are a huge range of possible sensors and they include: heat; light; sound;
movement; magnetism; pressure; strain; acidity (pH); oxygen levels; liquid
levels; humidity; pulse rates; salinity; water flow; speed and acceleration.
Switch sensors can detect angles of tilt or whether something is open or closed.
Advantages of Sensor
➢ Most sensors need an interface to convert analogue signals into the digital signals
that a computer can understand.

29
Web camera/Web Cam

A digital camera is used to capture still and moving images. Captured images are
transmitted to a computer where they are stored. Used for online chatting.

30
 Output Devices

An output device is a peripheral, which receives data in the form of electrical pulses
from the CPU. It then converts this data into information or further data.

Note:
➢ If the data is output as information, then people can read, look at listen to or
otherwise experience it.
➢ If the output device converts the data to further data, this may be so that it can
be:
Stored,
Or sent somewhere,
Or used to control other devices.
Examples of output devices
➢ A PC screen.
➢ A printer.
➢ A plotter.
➢ A speaker.
➢ A projector.
➢ Traffic lights.
Monitor

The computer monitor (also known as a VDU or Visual Display Unit) is the most
common computer output device. For desktop computers, cathode ray tube monitors
(CRT monitors) are gradually being replaced by flat-screen monitors such as the Liquid
Crystal Displays Monitors (LCD monitors), LED monitors which is the latest monitor in
the market and Thin Film Transistor monitors (TFT) displays used with laptop
computers because they use less power and take up less space. It uses a pixel for the
display.

Monochrome monitors have very good resolution but colour monitors are much
preferred for displaying graphics and colour texts.

A pixel is the smallest area in the screen, which the computer can change. The
resolution of the screen is a measure of how fine the detail is on the screen. Screens
are usually classified as low resolution, medium resolution or high resolution.

The screen mode is the way a computer uses the screen for graphics and text. Usually
the users have the choice of modes. They can choose from:

➢ Modes with high resolution or low resolution,

➢ Modes with more colours or fewer colours.

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Advantages of display screens

➢ High speed change of display.

➢ Display can include text, graphics and colours.
➢ No waste of papers.
➢ relatively cheap to purchase and reliable,
➢ Can display text and graphics in a wide range of colors.
➢ They are also quiet and do not waste paper

Disadvantages of display screens

➢ No permanent copy to keep and
➢ unsuitable for users with visual problems.

Measuring Quality of Monitors

The quality of monitors depends on the following factors.

i. Resolution
ii. Dot pitch
iii. Refresh rate

Resolution

The resolution refers to the sharpness and clearness of an image. The monitor’s screen
that has large number of pixels has high resolution. For example, a resolution of 800 x
600 means that there are 800 pixels horizontally and 600 pixels vertically across the
screen.
The term "pixel" is actually short for "Picture Element." These small little dots are what make
up the images on computer displays, whether they are flat-screen (LCD) or tube (CRT)
monitors. The screen is divided up into a matrix of thousands or even millions of pixels.
Typically, you cannot see the individual pixels, because they are so small. This is a good thing,
because most people prefer to look at smooth, clear images rather than blocky, "pixelated"
ones. However, if you set your monitor to a low resolution, such as 640x480 and look closely at
your screen, you will may be able to see the individual pixels. As you may have guessed, a
resolution of 640x480 is comprised of a matrix of 640 by 480 pixels, or 307,200 in all. That's a
lot of little dots.

Each pixel can only be one color at a time. However, since they are so small, pixels often blend
together to form various shades and blends of colors. The number of colors each pixel can be is
determined by the number of bits used to represent it. For example, 8-bit color allows for 2 to
the 8th, or 256 colors to be displayed. At this color depth, you may be able to see "graininess,"
or spotted colors when one color blends to another. However, at 16, 24, and 32-bit color
depths, the color blending is smooth and, unless you have some kind of extra-sensory vision
capability, you should not see any graininess.

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Dot Pitch

The distance between each pixel on the monitor screen is called dot pitch. It is also
referred to as Pixel Pitch. Dot Pitch is another factor that you can use to measure
image clarity on a monitor. The smaller the distance between the pixels, the higher the
sharpness of image displayed on screen.

Refresh Rate

The refresh rate is the number of times per second the electron guns scan every pixel
on the screen to redraw the images on the screen. It is measured in Hertz (Hz) or in
cycles per second.

Therefore, if the screen is not refreshed, it appears to flicker. The flicker is one of the
main causes of eyestrain. In general, a refresh rate of 75 Hz or higher should not cause
eyestrain. This means image on the screen redraws itself 75 times in a second.

Standard Resolutions (in pixels)

VGA 640 x 480

SVGA 800 x 600
XGA 1024 x 768
1280 x 1024
Some high-end monitors support these high resolutions.
1600 x 1200
Designed for professional level work,
1600 x 1280 e.g. computer-aided design or desktop publishing
1800 x 1440 Supported by at least one: ViewSonic P815 Mega

TYPES OF MONITORS

Cathode ray tubes Monitors (CRT Monitors):

CRT monitors are similar in many ways to a television. They use cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) containing an electron gun at the back of the tube which fires
electrons at groups of phosphor dots coating the inside of the screen. When the
electrons strike the phosphor dots they glow to give the colours. On a colour
monitor each group of phosphor dots is made up of one green, one blue and one
red dot (RGB

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Plasma Monitors

Plasma uses the technology of the Cathode Ray Tube Monitors. Plasma Monitors are not
dependent on backlight. It's technology diverges the intensity of the light to produce its
own range of colors. The prize of Plasma will increase according to their inch and they
are ideal for a big space and area.

Liquid Crystal Displays Monitors (LCD Monitors)

LCD technology makes use of a liquid crystal solution(tiny crystals) that is present in
two panes and partitioned glasses. By adjusting the amount of light that passes through
these panels from fluorescent backlight which is found in every LCD Monitors., images
are created on the screen .LCDs are also used in watches and calculators.
They use much less power than a normal monitor and are also used in watches and
calculators.

They also have high resolution than CRT Monitors

LED Monitor

LED Monitors (Light Emitting Diode Monitors) technology indicates the back-light system
which is introduced in some new LCD. LED TVs are like the new LCD TVs. The only
difference between LED TV and LCD TV is that LEDs use LED lights rather than using
fluorescent backlight which is found in every LCD TV.

Thin film transistors Monitors (TFT monitors) - this is a more advanced type of
display, giving full colour and high quality output. Each pixel on the screen is controlled
by its own transistor and this provides a higher resolution and more contrast.

CRT vs. LCD

Resolution & Viewing Quality

LCD has a better resolution than CRT

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Refresh Rate

Dot pitch refers to the space between the pixels that make up the images on your
screen, and is measured in millimeters. The less space between pixels, the better the
image quality, LCD have a better picture quality thus less space between pixels.

Screen (viewable) Size

There is no denying that an LCD wins in terms of its physical size and the space it
needs.

Price

As an individual one-time purchase an LCD monitor is going to be more expensive.

Power Consumption

LCDs are cheaper as they are known to have a longer lifespan and also a lower power
consumption.

LED Vs LCD Monitor

LED and LCD monitors are based on the same basic technology for image display but
differ in the kind of backlighting used. While LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent
lamps for backlighting, LED monitors use light emitting diodes. This is the main
difference between the two display technologies. So LEDs are a type of LCD monitors.

Power Consumption

LED monitors require a lot less power to operate

Cost
One major factor that has been holding back LED technology from reaching the masses
is the high price factor.

35
Speakers:

These transducers convert an alternating electrical current into sound. An electrical

transducer converts an electrical current into an output such as light, sound or
movement.
Suitable uses -
They can output music as well as the spoken word. Useful for blind users where text or
figures can be spoken by the computer. A speaker and computer-synthesized voice can
be used by automated systems to read information such as telephone numbers or traffic
updates.
Advantages –
➢ Cheap and widely available. Capable of producing very high quality sound.

Disadvantages-
➢ They are an analogue device so the digital sound signal has to be converted,
usually by a sound card.

36
Motors

Suitable uses
In control technology, a computer can be programmed to turn motors on and off using
relay switches. Examples include electronic doors and windows, cooling fans etc.
Motors are used in the automobile industry to move robot arms that spray body shells
or assemble and in electronics manufacturing to assemble delicate electronic
components on a printed-circuit board.

Advantages –
➢ Cheap, widely available and very accurate.
Disadvantages-
➢ They cannot be powered directly from a computer unless they are very low
powered so need a relay to control them.

Buzzers:

These cheap transducers change a current directly into a simple sound. They use a low
current so can be powered directly from a computer.

Suitable uses - Often used as alarms or warnings in computer control systems.

Advantages - Cheap and widely available. They use a tiny current so can be powered
directly from a computer.

Disadvantages - Limited volume and they can only produce a limited range of sounds

37
Lights:

A light-emitting diode (LED) converts an electrical current directly into light. Today's
LEDs can be found in just about every colour of the spectrum including invisible infra-
red.

Suitable uses –

LED's are commonly used to indicate various events such as 'power on' or 'hard disk in
operation' and to monitor other control applications. Infra-red LED's are used to
transmit the data from a remote control to the receiver. Normal light bulbs are used
with relays and control systems in automatic lighting and burglar alarms.

Advantages

➢ Cheap, widely available and very reliable. LED's use a tiny current so can be
powered directly from a computer.

Disadvantages

➢ Normal light bulbs need a relay to control them.

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Printers

Results from the computer system are often required in a printed form. We call this
hard copy. If the copy is on the screen, it is called a soft copy

Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on
paper.

Printers can be classified according to whether they are:

• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

They can be further classified according to:

A character printer is the one that prints one character at a time as the printer head
moves across the page.
A line printer is the one that prints a line at a time.
A page printer is a printer that organises and prints the whole page at once.

An impact printer is the one that in letters are formed by forcing the paper and the
printing head together to print the character. e.g. a dot matrix printer.

There are different types of printers.

Printers produce a printed 'hard copy' on paper. Different printers are suited to
different purposes and have a range of purchase and running costs
Printers can be divided up into three main types:

39
Dot matrix printers:

The print head travels from side to side across the paper and is made up of numerous
pins, which are pushed out to form the shape of each character The pins hit an ink
ribbon against the paper so the characters are printed out. The paper is usually
continuous with holes down each side and perforations so the pages can be easily
separated by tearing.
Because the pins make an impact against the paper the characters can be printed
through several layers of self-carbonating paper to produce duplicate copies.
The printer resolution is measured by dot per inch (dpi)

Suitable uses:

➢ Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is not
too important.
➢ Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders need to
produced quickly and cheaply

Disadvantages:
➢ The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium quality black
and white printing and can only print low resolution graphics.
➢ Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be quite
noisy when printing

Advantages:
➢ The purchase cost is low and the running costs/ Maintenance cost are very low.
➢ They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that Multipart
stationary are being printed in one print run.
➢ They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
➢ Impact printers will produce Multipart stationary.

40
Daisy wheel printer:

An impact printer which uses a spoked wheel with characters placed at the end of each
spoke. A print hammer is used to strike the desired character on to the link ribbon and
then the paper. The spoked wheel of characters is rotated around until the desired
character is under the print hammer. The print hammer is then fired, string the
character, pushing it against the ink ribbon, and on to the paper. This printer is rarely
used today.

41
Ink-jet printers:

➢ The print head contains tiny nozzles through which different

coloured inks can be sprayed onto the paper to form the
characters or the graphic images.
➢ The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny piezoelectric crystals,
which change shape when an electric current is applied across
them.
➢ Most inkjet printers print a line of information at a time and are
commonly refeered to as Line printers. The speed of inkjet
printers is measured in pages per minutes (ppm).
➢

Suitable uses:
A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are done and
photographic quality colour printing is needed

Disadvantages:
➢ The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs / Mainatanace costs can be
high.

42
 ➢ The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
Advantages:
➢ These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality black and
white or photographic quality borderless
color printing.
Laser printers:

➢ These print individual pages and work in a similar way to photocopiers.

➢ A drum is charged to match the image and powdered ink (toner) sticks to the
surface. The toner is then transferred to the paper and fixed by heat and
pressure.
➢ A school or business printer would have a typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per
minute (ppm)

Suitable uses:
Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Advantages:

43
 ➢ They produce less noise when printing and fast and produce high quality
printouts.
➢ Running cost is low because although toner cartridges are expensive to replace,
they last a long time.

Disadvantages:
➢ Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but the
difference is narrowing).
➢ Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed and
high quality output means they are becoming more popular).

Braille printer - by converting text into the Braille code, this printer produces patterns
of raised dots on paper for use by the blind.

44
Thermal printers:

These uses heated electrical wires to produce characters on the surface of a heat
sensitive paper. These printers require special paper which can be quite costly.
Thermal printers are mostly used for label printing.
Thermal printers are used most commonly to create labels, safety signs, wayfinding
markers, barcodes, shipping labels, and other heavily-used items.

Photo printers:

These are specially designed printers which allow you to connect a digital camera
directly to it in order to have your photographs printer

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Type Uses Cost Comments
Laser Most purposes, Moderate to Very good quality.
letters, reports, expensive. Toner Quite operation.
invoices. (powdered ink) can
be expensive
Inkjet Low volume. All Cheap, not Good quality and
purpose. economic for big affordable. Slow.
print runs.
Dot matrix Wage slips, garage Cheap Works by impact
and other bills. therefore useful
when carbon copies
are required.
Thermal Supermarket till Cheap. Needs a special
receipts paper.

Plotters

46
A plotter is a device for producing graphical output on a paper particularly large
drawings. Architect and technical drawings(computer Aided drawing) can be output by
plotters on a very large paper.
Suitable uses:
➢ Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid region of
colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
➢ Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for drawing
building plans, printed circuit boards, bill boards and machine parts.
Advantages:
➢ They are accurate and can produce far larger printouts than standard printers.
Disadvantages:
➢ Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
➢ They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.

47
 Storage

Storage of data and programs is one of the most important features of an information
processing system. This can be done:
➢ temporarily while a program is running;
➢ long-term to preserve programs and data while not in use.
Read and Write
To write data means to move data or copy it from the main store to the backing store.
To read data means to move it or copy it from backing store to the main store.

There are two main categories of storage are:

➢ main store,(Internal memory/Primary storage)

➢ Backing storage (also known as secondary storage) means data storage that
retains its contents when the computer is switched off. It can be used to hold
both programs and data.

When you run a program or load a file they are copied from the backing store into the
internal memory. When you save a file it is copied from the internal memory to the
backing store.

• It is always slower to access data from backing storage than from internal
memory.
• Data stored in backing storage is permanent so it is NOT lost when the computer
is turned off.
• Data stored in internal memory is lost when the computer is turned off.
• Backing store is storage outside the CPU.

48
The difference between internal memory and backing storage:

➢ the main store/internal memory/ primary storage is needed:

It is generally made up of semiconductor chips. The data and instructions
required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristic of Main Memory

o These are semiconductor memories.

o It is known as main memory.

o Usually volatile memory eg RAM while ROM is non volatile

o It is working memory of the computer.

o Faster access data on than secondary memories.

o A computer cannot run without primary memory

➢ The backing store/secondary storage is needed:

Since the CPU directly does not access these storage, instead they are accessed
via input-output routines. Contents of secondary storage are first transferred to
main memory and then CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic, solid state and optical Medias.

• It is known as backup memory.

• It is non-volatile memory.

• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

• It is used for storage of the data and programs in the computer.

• Computer may run without secondary memory.

• Slower to access than primary memories.

49
Main Store

Characteristics: of main store

➢ The store is internal.

➢ Data can be written and read at very high speeds.
➢ Data is transferred without any mechanical movement.
➢ It is divided into locations. The computer can access any location directly using a
unique number called its address.
➢ Main store usually contain two different types of memory:
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
o Random Access Memory (RAM)

Memory is another term for storage. It is usually used to describe the type of storage
chips used in the main store.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read Only Memory (ROM) Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-
only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM
cannot be written to, but can only be read from. It is non-volatile which means once
you turn off the computer the information remains stored.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM), is a temporary (Volatile) storage area utilized by the
CPU. Before a program can be run the program is loaded into the memory which allows
the CPU direct access to the program. It can be read and written to.

50
Characteristics of:

ROM
➢ ROM data is stored permanent.
o Data and programs on it cannot be changed.
o It is not volatile.

RAM
➢ RAM stored data temporary:
o Its contents can be changed.
o It is volatile. Can loose its data if the machine switches of due to power
failure.

Application of:
➢ RAM
o As the working store of the computer – as the temporary storage for the
program which is currently being run and the data it is using.
o To store data being transferred to and from peripherals.
o To store the contents of the screen.
o In a printer RAM can be used to store the next set of data to be printed.

➢ ROM
o To store programs essential to the normal running of the computer.
o In a printer it can be used to store programs to direct it how to print the
data.
o In a printer it can be used to store the shapes of the different printing
fonts.

51
Types of RAM and ROM

2 Types of RAM

SRAM Short for static random access memory, SRAM is a type of memory that is faster
and more reliable than the more common DRAM (dynamic RAM). The term static is
derived from the fact that as long as power is passing through it doesn't need to be
refreshed like the DRAM. SRAM is usully used in the memory cache.

DRAM stands for dynamic random access memory, a type of memory used in most
personal computers, as long as power is passing through it need to be refreshed.

Types of ROM

PROM, short for programmable read-only memory A PROM is a memory chip on which
data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it
remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROM's retain their contents when the computer is
turned off. The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a
PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the
manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device
called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is
sometimes called burning the PROM

EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is a special type of PROM that can
be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed.
An EEPROM is similar to a PROM, but requires only electricity to be erased.

EEPROM- electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. an EEPROM is a

special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like
other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM is similar to flash
memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The principal difference is that EEPROM
requires data to be written or erased one byte at a time whereas flash memory allows
data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes flash memory faster.

52
Other types of memory

Buffers and Caches

Buffer is temporary storage in memory used to temporarily store information while

other information is being processed.
Instead of reading a single byte on request, the system reads a block consisting of an
entire sector (or more), and stores it in a buffer (temporary storage or location). Then
when the next byte is needed, it is retrieved from the buffer, instead of being read
from the disk.
This is much quicker than reading individual bytes from the disk. Buffering is used in
printer, because the printer and the CPU work at different speeds.

A disk cache is similar to a buffer (temporary storage in memory used to temporarily

store information while other information is being processed), but it manages a large
number of blocks at once.

Examples of buffer
❖ Data buffer: storage or location of data while being moved from one location to
another.
❖ Input buffer: location that holds all incoming information before it continues to
CPU for processing.
❖ Print buffer: location in computer memory and/on that holds data that has
being sent to computer printer but cannot print because of another
print job.

Address and location

Memory is made of many locations, each with a unique reference or address (a unique
number referring to that location), with a basic item of data (a byte) stored at each
one. Each byte represents a piece of data. A computer can pinpoint a specific location
in memory using an address.

Backing Storages(secondary Starage)

A storage medium is the material on which the data is stored, e.g. magnetic tape,
floppy disk, or CD-ROM. A storage medium is exchangeable if it can be removed from
the drive and replaced by another one of the same type, e.g., floppy disk, CD-ROM,
tape cartridge.

A storage drive is the piece of equipment which rotates the storage medium, and
access the data on it. Backing stores are either serial access or direct access.

53
In serial access store all data before the required item has to be read first before the
data can be accessed. For example, magnetic tapes.
In direct access store any data item can be accessed without reading other data first.
E.g. magnetic disks.

Backing storage can be divided into two main categories:

➢ Magnetic media which stores the binary data on a disk or tape coated with a
material that can be magnetised differently, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is
stored.
➢ Optical media which stores the binary data in a surface that reflects laser light
differently, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is stored.

Magnetic media

Magnetic Disks
The common magnetic disks are floppy disks and hard disks. A hard disk is a rigid
magnetic disk and a floppy disk is a light, flexible magnetic disk held in protective
jacket.
Characteristics: of Magnetic disks.

➢ Data can be written to or read from the disk.

➢ Each surface holds data in circular tracks. Each track is divided into equal
sections called sectors.
➢ The disks are direct (random) access. The track number and the sector number
are used as an address to find where data is on the disk.
➢ They store data by magnetising a special material that coats the surface of a
disk.

As the disk spins, data is written to them or read from them by read/write heads.

NOTE: When a disk is formatted, magnetic rings are written to the disk, ready to hold
data. Each ring is called a track.

54
Hard Disks

Characteristics of hard disks

➢ They are usually fixed in the drive of the computer. Each is built into the sealed
unit to prevent contamination by dust and moisture.
➢ The hard disk medium of the computer is made of metal and it is inside the hard
disk drive. A hard disk is made from more than one disk, making a pack.
➢ Hard disks store more data than floppy disks. They are more reliable and robust
than floppy disks. There is better protection against dirt.
➢ Access to data is usually faster that access to floppy disks.

Applications of Hard disks

➢ Storage of the operating system, applications software and users’ files for a PC.
➢ Storage of the operating software and files for a local area network.
➢ Storage of work waiting to be printed on the network printer.

55
 Advantages:

o Very fast access to data. Data can be read directly from any part of the
hard disc (random access). The access speed is about 1000 KB per
second.
o Robust There is better protection against dirt.

Disadvantages:

o It can however be a real disaster when they eventually fail because few
home users have the data on their home computer hard drive backed up.

Floppy Disks

Floppy disks are removable and easy to carry about. Most computers have floppy disk
drives into the case. These can be found on most microcomputers and accept the usual
3.5 inch floppy discs. High density discs for a PC hold 1.44 MB of data (enough to store
about 350 pages of A4 text). A floppy disc needs to be formatted before it can be used
but most discs are now sold already formatted for PC's.

Characteristics of Floppy disks

➢ Diameter varies but 3 ½ inches is the most common.

➢ The amount of data stored varies but 1.44 megabytes is common.
➢ Access to data is slower than for hard disks.
➢ The disks are exchangeable and easy to carry.
➢ The data on the disk can be protected by sliding a small write protect tab which
prevents the contents of the disk from being changed.

56
Advantages of Floppy disks
➢ They are light and portable.
➢ Easily exchangeable.
➢ Information retrieval is easier since it is direct (random) access.

Disadvantages of Floppy disks

➢ They are easily physically damaged if unprotected and magnetic fields can
damage the data.
➢ They are relatively slow to access because floppy discs rotate far more slowly
than hard discs, at only six revolutions per second, and only start spinning when
requested. The access speed is about 36 KB per second

Application of Floppy Disks

➢ For back-up storage for a PC with a hard disk, for small files
➢ Can be used to install a software or store the operating system, applications
software or the users files.
➢ Can be used to transfer data between computers.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the main type of serial store. Just like the tape in a tape-recorder, the
data is written to or read from the tape as it passes the magnetic heads. Magnetic
tapes are often used to make a copy of hard discs for back-up reasons. This is
automatically done overnight on the network and the tapes are kept in a safe place
away from the server.

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Characteristics of Magnetic Tapes

➢ Magnetic tape has serial access – an item can only be accessed by working
through all the items before it.
➢ Tapes store a large amount of data for their size.

Advantages:

o Magnetic tape is relatively cheap and tape cassettes can store very large
quantities of data (typically 26 GB).

Disadvantages:

o Accessing data is very slow and you cannot go directly to an item of data
on the tape as you can with a disc. It is necessary to start at the beginning
of the tape and search for the data as the tape goes past the heads (serial
access).

Optical Media

Compact Disks (CDs)

CD-ROM (Compact disk Read Only Memory) is a form of the compact disk used for the
storage of the computer data. This means you can only read from the disc, not write or
store data onto it.
They are also known as optical discs because the data is read by a laser beam
reflecting or not reflecting from the disc surface.

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Like a floppy disc, a CD-ROM only starts spinning when requested and it has to spin up
to the correct speed each time it is accessed. It is much faster to access than a floppy
but it is currently slower than a hard disc.

Characteristics of CD-ROMs

➢ The disks are exchangeable and easy to carry.

➢ Usually data is written on to the disk before it sold. After that data can be read
from the disk not written to it.
➢ Can store more data than floppy disks. Usually about 800 MB.

➢ Access to data is faster than access to floppy disks but slower than hard disks.
➢ Most of then are 8 / 12 cm in diameter.

Note: New recordable CDs are available. (WORM - Write Once Read Many)

CD-ROMs are good for storing information that is not liable to be changed. Information
that is not used frequently can be store in a CD-ROM.

• Advantages:
o CD-ROM's hold large quantities of data (650 MB).
o They are relatively tough as long as the surface does not get too
scratched.
• Disadvantages:
o You cannot save files to a CD-Rom (although CD-R and CD-RW discs now
exist which can be written to)

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 Proper Care and Maintenance of Computer Equipment

HEALTH RISKS:

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) - This is caused by repetitive finger movements over
long periods of time and can cause serious pain in the finger joints.

Solutions - to reduce the risk of RSI you should:

• have your keyboard positioned correctly

• use a keyboard with a good ergonomic design
• develop a good typing technique
• try using wrist supports placed in front of the keyboard
• take regular breaks from using the keyboard

Special, ergonomically-designed keyboards where the keys are split and contoured for
the hands, can be purchased.

Eye Strain - Eye strain is quite common among people using monitors over extended
periods of time. It can result in irritated eyes and blurred vision.

Solutions - to reduce eye strain, users should look away from the
monitor and focus on a distant object from time to time to relax their
eye muscles. An anti-glare screen can help some users.

All new monitors must comply with EU standards which ensure that
radiation emission is as low as possible and all new screens must be
fitted with tilt and swivel stands.

Room lighting can have a major effect on eye strain.

• Windows should be fitted with non-reflective blinds.

• Computers should be positioned so that sunlight does not reflect off the screen.
• The optimum position is at right angles to the source of natural light.
• Worktops should have a matt surface in order to reduce glare.
• Computer monitors should ideally be placed at right-angles to any bright light
sources. If the monitor faces such a light source then there will be too much
reflected glare and if the monitor faces away from such a light source then the
user may end up squinting to see the screen.

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Lower Back problems - Sitting at the
computer for long periods of time is never
comfortable. Leaning back in the chair reduces
the pressure on the spine but then the arms have
to reach forward to the keyboard creating
muscle tension which leads to aches and pains in
the neck, shoulders, back and arms.

Solutions - while working at the keyboard, the

correct seating position is sitting upright with the
feet flat and the lower arms and thighs in a
roughly horizontal position. Adjustable chairs
that give the maximum support for the back are
also best.

Sufficient room is needed for the monitor to be moved back and forward. Ideally, the
top of the monitor should be at eye level.Even with a comfortable working
environment, it is still good to stand up, stretch and move around at regular intervals.

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62
Booting process

The starting of the computer‘s operating system and identifying its hardware and
software components that all work together to provide computing activities. This
explains what happens between the time that the user powers up the computer and
when the graphical user interface appear on the desktop.

In order for a computer to successfully boot, its BIOS (Basic Input Output system),
operating system and hardware components must all be working properly, failure of
any one of these three elements will likely results in a failed boot sequence.

When the computer’s power is first turned on, the CPU initilaizes itself, which is
triggered by a series of clock ticks generated by the system clock. Part of the CPU’s
initialization is to look to the system’s ROM BOIS for its first instruction in the start
up program.

ROM BIOS stores the first instruction, which is the instruction to run the power – on
self test (POST), in a predetermined memory address. POST begins by checking the
BIOS chip and then tests CMOS RAM. If the POST does not detect a battery falure, it
then continues to initialize the CPU, Checking the inventoried hardware devices
such as video card), secondary storage devices, such as hard disk and foppy drives,
ports and other hardware devices such as the keyboard and mouse to ensure they
are functioning properly.

Once the POST has determined that all components are functioning properly and the
CPU has successfully initialized, the BOIS looks for an OS to Load.
The BIOS looks to the CMOS chip to tell it where to find the OS and in most PCs, the
OS loads from the C drive on the Hard disk even the BOIS has the capability to load
the OS from a floppy disk, CD or ZIP drive.

The order of divers that the CMOS looks to in order yo locate the OS is called the
boot sequence, which can be changed by altering the CMOS setup. Looking to the
appropriate boot drive, the BIOS will first encounter the boot record, which tell it
where to find the beginning of the OS and program file that will initialize the OS.

Once the OS initialize, the OS basically takes over control of the boot processes.
Now in control, the OS loads the device drivers that it needs to control the
peripheral devices, such as printer, scanner, optical drives, mouse and keyboard.

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Software

The term software refers to the programs that we run in the computer. Software is a
general term for programs which are written for computer users. A software package is
a program or a set of programs together with a full set of documentation.

The term 'software' refers to the set of electronic program instructions or data a computer processor
reads in order to perform a task or operation. In contrast, the term 'hardware' refers to the physical
components that you can see and touch, such as the computer hard drive, mouse, and keyboard.
Examples of software

➢ A word processor program.

➢ A spreadsheet program.

Examples of software package

➢ A word processor program and its manual.

➢ A spreadsheet program and its manual.

Types of Software

There are two major types of software, system software and application software.

System Software Application Software

System software coordinates the activities and Perform real-world jobs that people want
functions of hardware and software, and it to do.
controls the operations of computer hardware

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Other examples of system software and what each does:

Operating Systems
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. It is the first program loaded into the computer by a boot program
and remains in memory at all times

BIOS (basic input/output system)

The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system started after you turn it on
and manages the data flow between the operating system and attached devices such as
the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
boot program
The boot program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or random
access memory (RAM).
An assembler
An assembler takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that
the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.
device driver
A device driver controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer, such as a
keyboard or a mouse. The driver program converts the more general input/output instructions of
the operating system to messages that the device type can understand.
System utilities Programs
According to some definitions, system software also includes system utilities, such as the
disk defragmenter and System Restore, and development tools such as compilersand debuggers.

Operating Systems
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. It is the first program loaded into the computer by a boot program
and remains in memory at all times

Examples of Operating Systems

These include UNIX, MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System), Windows 95/97/98/ NT,
Windows 2000, windows XP, Novell Netware. Mac OS and LINUX

Functions of the Operating Systems

The operating system usually

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 ➢ Create a working environment in which the user can run programs.
➢ Controls the use of peripherals such as disk unit and printers.
➢ Controls loading and running of programs.
➢ Organise the use of the main store – this has to be shared between the operating
systems and the user’s program(s).
➢ Deal with execution errors and keep the computer running when they occur.
➢ Communicate directly with users and /or operators.
➢ Display messages about the errors and the problems with peripherals – such as a
printer out of paper.
➢ Deal with user commands to organise files and run programs.
➢ Multitask to allow more than one program to run at the same time.

For larger computer and networks

➢ Produce a record of programs as they are run

➢ Maintaining security
o Right identification by the use of password;
o Whether access to files is granted or not.

➢ Organise the use of storage.

➢ Working out the resources used by each program.

Types of Operating Systems

Single User, Single program

One application is run at the time and only one user works at the machine. MSDOS is an
example of a single user, single program.

Multi-programming

More than one application program is held in RAM at the same time. This usually refers
to a large computer which is running different programs for different people.

Multi-tasking
This allowing more than one program to run at the same time on a PC. Examples of OS
that can do this are windows 95/97/98/2000 etc.

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Batch Processing
This accepts a list of jobs or data and process them at the same time without a need
for anyone to do anything more. The data is collected together, and then the computer
works through it. Examples include payroll and cheque processing.

Real-Time
These give an immediate response to data input. Examples include heart rate
monitoring and control situations such as traffic lights and aircraft navigation. Game
play also use real-time.

Note:
➢ All computers use operating systems.
➢ Operating systems are large and complex collections of software.
➢ Operating systems control the hardware so that the user does not have to.
➢ Operating systems are loaded from disk into RAM when a computer boots up.
➢ Application software works through the operating system to gain access to the
hardware.

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