Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 1

Social Work Practice with

Individuals
Jeanne Bertrand Finch, DSW
Assistant Dean and Graduate Program Director
Director, Student-Community Development Specialization
School of Social Welfare, Stony Brook University
HSC. Level 2, 093, Stony Brook, New York
631-444-3167
[email protected]

INTRODUCTION

A. Overview of this Course within the Social Work Curriculum

Social work practice with individuals is a required core component of social work
practice courses. Foundation year social work practice courses frequently
include teaching social work skills through the organizing principle of the change
process. This is often most easily taught using the example of establishing work
relationships with individuals. For example, Shulman (2009) explains that “[T]he
helping process is complex; it must be presented clearly and broken down into
manageable segments...This process and its associated set of core skills can be
observed whenever one person attempts to help another” (xxiii). In this way,
using the relationship established in individual work provides a vehicle to
acquiring interviewing skills and to applying these skills across system levels.
Whether the task is to learn active listening skills, reframing, paraphrasing, or
advocacy, students are frequently initially helped to consider them in reference to
work with an individual and then to practice these skills in field education
placements. As a basic understanding of the helping process and the nature of
change is achieved, these foundational skills are further honed and specifically
applied to the stages within the helping process and to other client target
systems or special populations.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 2

First year social work practice content introduces these foundational concepts
and skills while second year social work micro practice content focuses more
precisely on specific populations and special considerations. Additionally,
elective choices may select a particular population or issue from which to
consider the special practice considerations of work with individuals. In this vein,
many social work programs offer elective courses that focus explicitly on
individual work within child welfare and the particular concerns of parenting, child
abuse and neglect, on work with substance abusing individuals, or victims of
domestic violence, etc. These focused courses are usually in the advanced year
of the curriculum.

This guide is written understanding that there are multiple places where teaching
individual work may appear in the curriculum. The themes identified for focus in
this guide are important to any individual work undertaken; the lens may be
adjusted to the level and specific focus of the course under consideration.

B. Relevance of the Case Studies to this Course and Integrating

Themes

This guide is written from a family-centered perspective. As explicated in the

Real Cases Guide titled “Family-Oriented Social Work Treatment” (Gonzalez), a
family centered/oriented perspective sees “individual clients as part of their family
system.” This perspective provides a lens through which to consider any of the
individuals featured in the case scenarios who are chosen as the target system
for change.

Although a family-centered perspective underlies the work undertaken, this guide

considers work with individuals—not their family system. A family-centered
perspective is seen as essential and directly connected to our professional
values and to the tenets of child welfare practice.

One of the prime values of our profession is the importance of human

relationships. This value assumes that each of us is connected to others. These
connections are “important vehicles for change” (NASW, Code of Ethics).
Further, we “seek to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful effort
to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the well-being of individuals, families,
social groups, organizations and communities” (NASW, Code of Ethics). This
assumes that although we may be engaging in individual work, we do not lose
sight of those not in the room with us, but whom our clients "bring" with them.

Additionally, child welfare practice aims to ensure the safety of children while
also ensuring that families will be actively involved in identifying their strengths
(The National Resource Center for Permanency and Family Connections
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 3

Practice in Child Welfare [NRCPFC]. Accessed 6/20/11 at:

http://www.nyc.gov/html/acs/downloads/pdf/quality_practice_model.pdf).

A family-centered perspective is posited as helping "to keep children safe,

promoting relationships with caring parents and guardians, and supporting the
developmental needs of children at all ages…" (The National Resource Center
for Permanency and Family Connections Practice in Child Welfare [NRCPFC].
Accessed 6/20/11 at:
http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/info_services/family-centered-
practice.html

Each of the Real Cases provides ample opportunity to consider the import of
these issues. They provide vibrant examples through which these values and
principles may be examined. Working with any of the adults highlighted in the
scenarios, entails considering this individual’s relationships with the other
members in the client system if purposeful change is to occur. Understanding
this provides a family-centered lens through which the work proceeds.

Each of the cases also provides examples of how confusing and complex the
issues within child welfare practice can be. For example, in the case of Mary S
we read the details of the case workers’ attempts to gather information and to
form an assessment--as if more details will provide the answers. As we read the
details, our thoughts flow from one adult to the next as being a better caretaker
for Jason. As more details evolve, so do our opinions about the actors
described.

The varying philosophies regarding child discipline add to the complexity.

Perhaps the answer of who should have custody of Jason lies within the concrete
facts provided. Perhaps the final tally of these concrete measurable factors such
as building code compliance, having carbon dioxide meters and window guards,
or perhaps the financial ability of the grandmother or Jason's more secure school
attendance under her care are what might make Jason’s future more secure. Yet,
each of these factors provides another question and like a mystery story without
a final chapter, the reader is left to tackle what follows using the tools of our
profession to move alongside the facts to more subtle factors and to find a way to
a possible next step. In order to proceed, having the skills to conduct a
differential diagnosis upon which to craft a mutual treatment plan provides an
essential tool. Within this task, the worker must be cognizant of the paths to
establishing a working alliance and the potential resources, strengths, pitfalls and
obstacles facing the client system which impact the work. Each of the cases also
provides the opportunity to explore the intricacies of individual work within the
timeframe of a child’s life. The needs of the individual parent/ caretaker are often
in potential conflict with the needs of the child and the time parameters required
within child welfare practice. Understanding resistance and its place in the
process of change emerges as another important component within the case
scenarios.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 4

Finally, understanding the special place that professional authority and the power
of the child welfare system, and their implications for our work with these
individuals and their families, is critical. These areas are interconnected and will
be usefully explored through any of the cases--albeit with different issues related
to the special circumstances and facets of the cases presented.

C. Overview of What is Included in This Guide

Three specific learning objectives are identified which guide the use of each case
study. Strategies for exploring these objectives are then offered. The references
provide avenues for further exploration of the themes and issues presented.
Although discussed as separate and distinct, students will experience these
strategies –and the issues they tackle--as intertwined and interconnected. For
example, while conducting a differential assessment consideration of how
professional authority, power and powerlessness impact each of the scenarios is
essential in achieving a useful assessment which provides clues as to how to
establish a working alliance and what resources and barriers to anticipate.

D. Specific Learning Objectives

This section outlines three objectives for work with each of the cases, followed by
discussion of each of the objectives.

Students will:

1. identify the issues of professional authority, power and powerlessness

operative for themselves and for the adults in the scenario/s.
2. conduct a differential assessment which identifies the strengths and
potential barriers to establishing a working alliance.
3. based upon the differential assessment and consideration of the issues of
professional authority, identify potential resistances to a plan for work.

1. Identifying issues of professional authority and their impact

Working with authority while sharing the power of change, and recognizing
this component as a factor to be managed in sustaining the working
alliance, are essential aspects for the work with individuals. Students
need practice in acknowledging the power and expertise they do, and
don't, have. Further, they need practice in considering how this impacts
engaging clients in mutual planning and goal setting.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 5

Enriching the understanding of the concepts of explicit and implicit power

in the context of our professional role, power and authority is basic to
advanced social work practice. Issues of power and powerlessness are
explicit in each of the case scenarios simply by the fact that child welfare
investigations have taken place in each of the families. In spite the
worker's earnest intent, the client may approach the worker with unease
and fear related to the worker’s association to the public child welfare
agency. Equally, the parameters of the worker’s role in ensuring the safety
of children requires being explicit and direct. For example, the worker’s
role may be exercised by allowing access to the child, granting custody,
mandating treatment, or simply by choosing to share or withhold
information. These realities cannot be side stepped. Finn and Jacobson
(2003, 238) remind us that “[B]y virtue of our positions, we may have the
power to attach labels to others, access resources, impose sanctions, and
make recommendations with significant legal and social consequences."

Work within child welfare makes these often avoided considerations more
easily visible. In this way, the scenarios provide a vehicle for students to
examine this often inherent, but less tangible aspect of our work with
clients.

2. Conducting a differential assessment

Being able to identify the strengths and obstacles to the work and potential
for change is a critical foundation to social work practice. The Real Cases
Guide to Generalist Practice (Cohen) provides a useful framework for
helping students to tune into the issues inherent in the cases. This outline
builds upon these essential skills to help students consider the steps
needed to construct more focused helping skills within the working
alliance.

Too often we examine cases from a deficit perspective. Blundo (2001)

articulates the special challenges involved in shifting our perception of
these factors. How we gather information is also critical. "Questions that
identify unutilized talents, forgotten skills, qualities that could be
enhanced, social networks from the past as well as in the present are
useful to build avenues to empower clients" (Guiterrez and Lewis 1999,
38-51). De Jong and Miller (1995) and Saleebey (2006) offer useful
frameworks from which to begin.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 6

3. Understanding resistances to change

Even those desirous of change face uncertainty in the face of having to do

things differently or to consider things from a different perspective. Each of
the cases detail interchanges in which the individual could be assumed to
bring resistance to the notion of change. Through an examination of these
interchanges, it is possible to scrutinize the nature of change and the role
that resistance inherently plays for any of us in the process of change. The
resistance is merely the client’s mechanism to provide a stable state. We
often provide another glimpse into the reality –sometimes a world view
change --that destabilizes the client’s usual way of seeing circumstances
and those around them.

TEACHING STRATEGIES

A. Strategy One: Working with Authority While Sharing Power

1. Areas/issues of the case studies to be highlighted: This exercise aims to

engage students in an examination of their understanding of the professional
authority they carry into any interaction and their own sense of their power within
their work. The exercise takes students through reflection on their personal
experiences of power and powerlessness to sharing this with their colleagues
and a class discussion of what emerges. They are then helped to apply this to
the work with any of the adult individuals in the case scenarios.

Similar to tuning in exercises (see Real Cases Guide to Generalist Practice,

Cohen), this exercise normalizes our myriad responses to power and authority
and helps students to reflect on how these may impact the work ahead. The
subsequent class discussion moves the students to a more informed
consideration of these issues based upon assigned readings and formal
application to the case scenarios.

2. Timing within the semester: This strategy should follow initial consideration
of engagement issues. However, understanding professional authority and the
power attached to our roles, requires that students have some experience of their
role within field education. Also, as the discussion of power and powerlessness
requires some level of personal exposure, the class should have some
experience of discussing such topics pertinent to their work. This will enhance
their ability to examine these issues. Returning to this issue later in the academic
year, or again in the advanced curriculum reinforces the importance of this issue.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 7

3. Teaching methods: First, introduce the notion of professional authority (See

for example, Shulman, 2009: 56). Ask students to individually write a reflection
on the points identified below. This can be done in class or as an assignment in
preparation for class. In either case, the aim is for each student to center
thoughts on the issue and to write a reflection on the following points adapted
from Bogo (2006: 47).

• Recall and examine an experience where you realized you had power
over another;
• Recall and examine an experience where you realized another person
had power over you;
• How might your perception and experience of power and
powerlessness demonstrate itself in work with your clients?

By requiring each student to consider these issues before bringing the topic to
general class discussion, each student is given the opportunity to consider
his/her own position regarding this issue prior to being confronted with other
positions. It also encourages less vocal students to give thought to their
individual responses. This ensures that they are engaged in the work and
promotes their preparedness to voice their thoughts (Shor, 1992).

The next step is to ask students to share their individual responses in pairs. They
are asked to read their reflections to their pair, or to summarize this for each
other. In these pairs the students are then asked to examine what experiences
they share and what might be different.

Once students do their work in pairs, the professor may choose to increase
student small group discussion by increasing the pairs to fours before coming
back into the whole group for general discussion. This will depend upon the
professor's sense of the class and its history of working together on sensitive
issues. If this step is chosen, the students are asked to share what conclusions
each pair came to in their previous discussion and to again examine what
conclusions they identified that are similar and those that are different. This
provides preparation for students to share and incrementally prepare for their
discussions with the entire class.

Following these more intimate student discussions, the class comes together to
examine the issues which have been highlighted in the smaller student
discussions. They are simply asked "What struck you from these interchanges?"
or, "What did you learn from these interchanges?" The aim is to focus on issues
derived, not to go necessarily into each student's personal reflections. The
professor is demonstrating the skill of synthesizing individual experiences to
more general applications.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 8

The general class discussion aims to facilitate deeper understanding of concepts

of "use of self" and how the personal self intertwines with the professional self.
Shulman (2009) is a powerful voice for unveiling the false dichotomy in these
"two selves". He purports that we must understand how the personal self
interacts with our professional role so that the two work together. This is different
from positions that posit we place our personal self "on the shelf" when
working—as if this is the best way of proceeding, or even possible. In this way,
Shulman is supporting the facilitation of student self reflection so as to make
them aware of personal pitfalls to harness and to identify resources to draw
upon. (See also, Mandell, 2008.)

The next step is to turn to any of the case scenarios. This transition requires
elucidation of the implicit power and authority that exists in the role and function
of child welfare (Bundy-Fazioli, Briar-Lawson and Hardiman, 2009; Hackett and
Marsland, 1997; Radley, 2008). Students are helped to understand that any of
our professional roles and functions contains aspects of power and authority and
that the case scenarios provide a glimpse into those associated with child
welfare.

Students should have read the case scenario/s in advance. In the general class
discussion, students are encouraged to identify explicit considerations of the
case scenario/s in which power and authority are displayed. Each scenario
provides issues of power/powerlessness that the individuals face.

Either in groups of four, or together as a class, students are asked to build upon
their understanding of power to a case scenario and to work with a specific
individual in the scenario. The groups are asked to consider:

1. How might the issues of power/powerlessness affect the work with the
identified individual; and

2. Given these issues, students are asked to consider how the worker
might anticipate management of the engagement phase of the work.
Are these issues different when considering the contracting phase of
the helping process?

The professor has choices as to how to manage this work. This can be done as a
whole class or in smaller groups of students. The choice may also be made
regarding considering the same individual or by considering two different
individuals within the same scenario to highlight how differently these issues play
out in the realities documented. Further, the professor may choose to do the
work in stages. That is, have the groups work together on question one and then
obtain class discussion, then return to the groups for consideration of question
two. By considering more than one individual or more than one scenario, it is
possible to examine how complexly these issues play out in practice and how
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 9

flexible the worker needs to be in meeting the different needs of the individual in
question.

4. Materials needed: Besides the chosen case scenario/s, no other materials

are needed.

5. Supporting readings/ handouts: The questions for consideration can be

either written on the blackboard or handed out to students so that the work
remains focused. Besides the references cited in the body of this strategy,
supportive readings can be selected from the reference listing. All references are
provided at the end of this guide.

6. Evaluation plan: This strategy may be evaluated through general class

discussion asking for student feedback, by asking for another short reflection
from students, or by including a question on the final course evaluation that
addresses this exercise explicitly.

Students can be asked to take this discussion to their supervisory sessions in

field education placements to consider how new insights may be applied to the
work within their placements. This can be brought forward to future class
discussions in order to bring the issues alive, this time applied to the real work in
field education placements.

B. Strategy Two: Conducting a Differential Assessment

1. Areas/issues of the case studies to be highlighted: Using a framework for

assessment which includes identifying the factors within the individual’s
“problem” situation involves understanding that the problem is “the mismatch or
disequilibrium between the help seeker’s needs and environmental demands and
resources” (Cowger, Anderson, Snively, 2006: 106). This requires the
identification of those strengths and barriers both within and external to the help
seeker’s own personal psychological, physical and emotional factors. The plan
for change can then be built upon the competencies and capabilities of the client
and her/his environment. Resources and supplemental services can be explored
to help fill the gap between the individual's capacities and the demands of the
environment. This process enhances the likelihood of success of the change
effort. For example, Andrea R's capabilities need to be assessed in light of
Vincent's needs and the resources of their environment.

2. Timing within the semester: Issues related to assessment are often tackled
in the beginning of the semester, but there is also wisdom in returning to this
phase of work later in the term to reinforce the learning and to increase students'
sense of efficacy in tackling familiar issues in more complex case scenarios.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 10

3. Teaching Method: Using Cowger et al.’s (2006) framework provided below

(Section 5: Suggested Handout), students are asked to brainstorm on the
identified strengths from each of the quadrants. This is a useful exercise to do as
a class. Students often need assistance to shift from a problem/deficit
perspective (Blundo, 2001; Graybeal, 2001). They frequently point to the many
weaknesses/obstacles so easily identified in any of the case scenarios and they
experience challenges of finding strengths or areas of potential. Equally, some
identified weaknesses are also indicative of potential resources and this also
requires explication. This can be a powerful exercise that helps students
experience the influence of a deficit perspective and how difficult it is to reframe
"weaknesses" or to be helped to see strengths not immediately obvious. What is
required from the professor is to facilitate the students' curiosity about hidden
client/ environmental talents and potentials.

For example, the case of Andrea R provides a useful exercise in this regard. The
deficits/obstacles are easily listed. The scenario is replete with the many
obstacles facing Andrea. It is particularly challenging to identify avenues of
personal strength or to feel confident about the resources available. Helping
students to identify the potential (albeit limited) resources is an important
exercise.

Andrea's concern for Vincent may be first noted as her over reliance on Vincent
to help care for her. The cleanliness of the apartment may be questioned as an
insufficient strength in the face of the deficits, or questioned as related to
Vincent's helping and not pursued as one of Andrea's capabilities and expression
of coping. Andrea's ability to secure good attendance at school for Vincent also
may be lost among the concern expressed about her lack of provision of
pampers. Andrea's initial ability to identify Elizabeth as a resource for her son
may be questioned as creating tension for Vincent due to Andrea's own
difficulties in her relationship with her sister and may be overshadowed by her
later reneging on this suggestion. Her requiring that her sister and mother "only
have contact with Vincent if first going through her" may be seen as negative
controlling behavior rather than potentially indicative of her fear of losing Vincent,
her desire to remain in Vincent's life, or indicative of a realistic assessment of her
family's reluctance to maintain involvement with Andrea. The exercise does not
provide the answers; the aim is to provoke student curiosity and to break through
preconceived notions of Andrea that emerge from a deficit perspective, and to
provide a fair accounting of both the deficits /obstacles and the
strengths/resources (Blundo, 2001; Graybeal, 2001).

The depth of Andrea's psychiatric condition and depression is a major obstacle

not to be ignored, of course. However, her ability to cooperate in seeking help
during better periods of coping needs to be acknowledged. Her lack of
compliance with her treatment, in this context, becomes a key in signaling that all
is not well. The exercise offers students a chance to explore questions of what
might aid maintaining Andrea’s well being, and that of her son. This case
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 11

provides rich material from which to explore moving from a deficit perspective to
a strengths perspective that produces a more detailed assessment of how to
stabilize the situation and then to plan for next steps.

The aim of the exercise is not simply in the listing and brainstorming of strengths
and obstacles. The value of the exercise is related to its potential in the critical
examination of the case scenario to give students experience in tackling a
differential assessment of this individual and her system. The professor prompts
for those qualities/factors that raise further questions. For example, Andrea's
mother is assessed as a possible resource but this is not pursued "because she
lives in a rented single room." This may easily fit in the Assessment Axis as an
environmental obstacle. But, it might be posed to the students to consider the
influence of the previous material presented about Andrea's own child rearing.
Has Andrea's mother been so easily written off for further consideration due to
this? Why not evaluate her on her current maternal capabilities and if she is
found to be a resource, help her obtain another more suitable apartment. Might
a further evaluation of Vincent's grandmother turn this environmental obstacle
into an environmental strength/resource? Further, how is Andrea's psychiatrist
listed in the quadrant? Is he an environmental resource or obstacle—or both? He
has long term knowledge of Andrea and her psychiatric disability. He assesses
her as capable of caring for Vincent and he does not act when she misses her
appointments. He recommends that Vincent be returned to prevent Andrea's
further depressive reaction. How might the students assess these critical
components within Andrea's system and what questions might be posed to help
clarify this essential part of Andrea's resources and key to her stabilization? What
questions emerge that point to students' ability to consider Andrea's needs as
potentially in conflict –but complexly intertwined --with Vincent's?

4. Materials needed: Students should be assigned to read the chosen case

scenario. The Andrea R case scenario is used above. No other materials are
needed.

5. Supporting readings/ handouts: The following matrix can be provided to

students as a working tool, or placed on the blackboard. (Note: More space in the
quadrants should be provided if used as a handout.) Besides the references
used in this strategy, supportive readings can be selected from the reference
listing at the end of this teaching guide.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 12

Suggested handout: Assessment Axis (Cowger, et al., 2006, 109)

Environmental Factors Client Factors

Environmental factors Personal factors (psychological,
Strengths/Resource physical, emotional etc.)
1. Strengths
2. 1.
3. etc. 2.
3. etc.
Environmental factors Personal factors (psychological,
Obstacles physical, emotional etc.,)
Obstacles
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. etc. 3. etc.

6. Evaluation plan This strategy may be evaluated through general class

discussion asking for student feedback, by asking for a short reflection from
students, or by including a question on the final course evaluation that addresses
this exercise explicitly.

Students can be asked to apply this exercise to their work within field education
and to use the axis with their field instructor with work already being undertaken.
This can be brought back to future class discussions in order to bring the issues
alive, this time applied to the real work of field education.

C. Strategy Three: Understanding Resistance to Change

1. Areas/issues of the case studies to be highlighted: This third strategy

aims to address the challenges encountered when client resistance to change is
met. Resistance is a natural response to maintain homeostasis but is often
experienced as frustrating by the worker. If misunderstood, the working alliance
is threatened. Students benefit from careful consideration of this phenomenon
and the case scenarios provide a useful platform from which to do this work.
General Systems Theory explains that as you reach the boundary of any system,
resistance toward change increases as the system attempts to balance for
homeostasis. Therefore, resistance to change is normal and should be
anticipated. It is an inherent part of the process of change (Shulman, 2009; Finn
and Jacobson, 2003). It is therefore important to be on watch for signs of
ambivalence as precursors to evolving resistance. It is also important to assess
the nature of the resistance. We cannot assume it is coming from only one
precipitant, and it may be associated with various factors. Neither can we
assume that the resistance is negative to the work.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 13

2. Timing within the semester: Resistance as a threat to the working alliance

is usually connected to engagement and the work phases of the helping process.
Providing content on the topic of resistance provides a useful reinforcement to
mutual goal setting and the challenges encountered as the treatment plan is
implemented. If the course content is focused on mandated/ involuntary
populations, the topic of resistance can be placed early in the roster of topics and
taken in association with engagement issues.

3. Teaching Method: The aim of the class discussion on resistance is to

facilitate student understanding of this inherent component to change. From a
strengths perspective and empowerment model, we look upon our relationships
as collaborative and therefore resistance is a component within the working
alliance (Ragg, 2001; Finn and Jacobson, 2003). Resistance is reframed as a
signal that the work is "stuck" instead of labeling the client as non-compliant,
unmotivated, in denial, etc.

Ragg (2001) explicates the nuances of supporting, developing and managing

threats to the working alliance (Chapters 13 and 14). A delineation of client-
related challenges, worker-related challenges and relationship-related challenges
are outlined with clues on how to respond. He proposes an honest yet direct
approach in addressing these challenges—both to acknowledge the issue/s and
to validate the client’s concern. Even an issue which seems client-based (e.g.
failure to keep appointments, or stalemates reached in progress toward agreed
goals) are viewed as relational. The worker is part of the equation and therefore,
the conversation includes discussion of “our” work together and “our” need to
resolve a path forward.

Class discussion questions and tips:

We all know what it is like being on the other side of resistance in the face of
change.

How do we understand resistance? What is it?

How do we recognize it? How do we experience it? How do we respond

to it?

In recalling a time in which you were resistant to change, can you recall
what you wanted to happen instead? Do you have thoughts about how the
situation or the other person involved could have responded differently to
gain your confidence and cooperation?

What do these considerations tell us about resistance?

What are some of the purposes of resistance?

Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 14

1. self protection – (If the self feels threatened, might we consider

whether there is such a thing as too little resistance?)
2. allows time for trust to build – (perhaps the push for change is
going too fast?

3. expression of ambivalence – (is this the inability to choose, or to

choose between two pulls?)
4. concerns about differences and feeling misunderstood. (Here i
issues of difference related to race, gender, class, or age between the
worker and client may be involved.)
Questions to ask in the face of resistance:

What is the precise nature of the barrier? That is, how else might the
barrier be explained?

Whose problem is it? That is, whose need for change is it? Who is more
invested in this particular solution, or route to change?

What positive and negatives about the possibility of change exist?

Is the solution based on the wrong hypothesis/tasks/focus etc? That is,

perhaps there is agreement on the problem, but not about the goals or
about the manner chosen to go about achieving those goals. Might the
pacing or timing need reconsideration?

What are some of the factors that affect a system’s response to change?

1. Is the change inspired from within, or caused by, an external cause?

2. Is it a matter of survival? If not, how important is it? If yes, whose

survival? (Note: Remember even if it is an important issue, this does not
necessarily lessen the possibility of resistance. Just being a good idea or
that it seems the right thing to do, often is not enough.)

3. Fears a loss of job, status, etc. or the need for change is not seen
(Perhaps the stakes seem too high to proceed with a plan for change, or
there is a belief that more harm than good will result.)

4. Doesn’t respect the person’s judgment proposing the change

5. Doesn’t like the way it was introduced or doesn't feel consulted

6. Sees the change as a personal criticism

Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 15

7. Feels change will take too much effort, and that it is not worth the effort

8. Others are pressuring for resistance to change

What are some responses to mitigate the fear of

change/resistance/ambivalence?

Acknowledge that change is difficult

Defuse the negative flow by proposing you may have been moving too
fast. This also models that it is o.k. to acknowledge that you may have
been going too fast and reaches for mutuality in the process.

Reach for the client's own curiosity about the impasse. This also
communicates interest in the process of change.

Reframe - help them out of a corner, address the positive behavior. "You
are reluctant, but you are here." "Perhaps it is better for us to slow down
and take time to review." "Perhaps we need more time to consolidate the
changes you have already achieved before moving ahead."

Make this current effort distinct from other previous failed attempts. "You
may feel as if you are at stage one again, but let's review this together."

Remind the client that being stuck is part of the work. “Change is difficult
and we should not be surprised that it is difficult and that it takes time.”

Examination of case scenario

Next the class, either as a whole class or in smaller groups, is asked to examine
a case scenario. The case scenario, Anne M, is used here as an example. The
aim is to identify instances that indicate "cooperation" and those that may
indicate "resistance" to the presenting problem of seeking safety for Anne M and
the children.

Current Investigation: illustrates the different responses from Mr. M and Anne
related to the initial CPS call. What do students see from the details here? What
beginning negotiations are made between the worker and each individual? Are
there any questions arising from these initial contacts?

Subject's Account of Allegation: makes note that Anne M left Jamaica

immediately after assessing she was not safe there. She proceeds without
hesitation to seek an Order of Protection on 7/16, the day after this is
recommended—two days after the incident in Jamaica.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 16

Initial Home Visit: Anne M makes the documents available and allows the worker
to talk to the children. She volunteers her fear of her husband and describes her
safety ritual when returning home each night.

Safety Plan: Anne M cooperates with establishing a more detailed safety plan,
but is not willing to consider a move from her current apartment.

How can this viewed in relation to providing clues to Anne's feelings about the
changes ahead for her and her children? What response from the worker might
address Anne's fears which may also further the work of change ahead? The aim
here is to allow the students to craft responses that acknowledge Anne’s
reluctance to move and ambivalence about this as an option, and to respect that
this particular safety measure may involve too much change at this point but to
leave room for change if this becomes an issue of safety.

Active Listening to communicate understanding

"Your reluctance to leave your home is understandable. You are
frightened each night and it seems the familiarity of the apartment gives
you both reassurance that some things can stay the same, while also
realizing that the memories here are difficult for you and the children and
moving shifts everything that is familiar."

Acknowledge that change is difficult while leaving room for change

"A move would involve a lot of changes for you and the children. I
understand your reluctance to consider this at this particular time.

Reframe - help her out of a corner, address the positive behavior.

"Perhaps we can review this together from time to time. If you like, we can
return to this once the new locks are installed and you have a chance to
see if the fears lessen."

Are there other options?

Court Involvement: Mr. M's initial cooperation has turned to blocking the
proceeding of the court hearing by refusing to attend and then failing to obtain a
lawyer. The judge intervenes by stating that Mr. M. would be required to
represent himself if he appeared again without a lawyer. Confrontation is an
intervention to use when resistance threatens the safety of the client system.
Would students like to return to the interchanges above and add a possible
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 17

confrontation intervention on the assumption that there is evidence that Anne and
the children are no longer safe in their apartment?

Confrontation
"Anne, you and the children are not safe here. I understand your
reluctance to move and your need to think about the changes involved.
We can work together to achieve safety for yourself and your family. Let’s
talk about this further."

Ongoing Contacts: Anne M. keeps her scheduled appointments with the worker.
Work concerns and child care issues prevent a child evaluation specialist to
conduct an Elevated Risk Conference. Anne M. reaches out to her worker with
concrete concerns and advice about texting messages received from her
husband. During a visit Thomas responds to the mention of his father and
interrupts the conversation between the worker and his mother by turning up the
TV. The worker notes that Anne M. "only" gave the Order of Protection to the
Head Teacher and that she was asked to give a copy to each person. Anne M
returns to the topic of finding a new apartment and she asks for a referral due to
flashbacks. She is also worried about the children. In response to being asked
what she does to deal with her anxiety, she answers that she prays.

Students are asked to consider this information. What do they note in relation to
indications of possible ambivalence/resistance? They are asked to consider what
they would want to say to promote the work ahead.

The concern noted about Thomas is highlighted in juxtaposition to the failure to

have a consultation with a child evaluation specialist. Based upon the above
examples, what interchange/s might the worker make at this point in the
interview. What can be said to further the work while addressing the potential
ambivalence and while recognizing the extent to which the children have been
affected?

The need to have each person receive a copy of the Order of Protection is an
important safety precaution. What interchange/s might the worker make to
ensure that this measure is followed up on?

Anne M. acknowledges her need for counseling. She reports that she prays
when she is anxious. This is important information and an area we often do not
pursue. What interchange/s might the worker make that furthers the work? How
can the worker intervene to support the personal resource of prayer while also
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 18

enquiring whether more is needed? How would understanding this aspect of

Anne’s inner life provide a more detailed assessment of Anne’s resources?
Does she have the support of her religious community? Is prayer an effective
source of sustenance for her? What source of sustenance exists for the children?

Elevated Risk Conference: Details of the children's responses is discussed and

Anne shares her confusion of wanting her children to have contact with their
extended family and possibly with Mr. M. Counseling is recommended for Mr. M.
Given the history, what interchange/s might the worker make regarding Anne's
confusion over contact with the extended family for the children? Given the
recommendation that Mr. M receive counseling, what interchange/s might the
worker consider towards achieving this goal?

4. Materials needed: Students should be assigned to read the case scenario

chosen for review. The Anne M. case scenario is used as an example above. No
other materials are needed.

5. Supporting readings/ handouts: The class discussion notes provided above

may be adapted as a handout for students. In particular, the section “Class
discussion questions and tips” may be adapted as a handout. Besides the
references used in this strategy, supportive readings can be selected from the
reference listing at the end of this teaching guide.

6. Evaluation plan This strategy may be evaluated through general class

discussion asking for student feedback, by asking for a short reflection from
students, or by including a question on the final course evaluation that addresses
this exercise explicitly.

Students can be asked to watch for expressions of client system ambivalence

within field education and to practice responses to ambivalence/ resistance in
these situations. These attempts can be brought back to future class discussions
in order to bring the issues alive, this time applied to the real work of field
education.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 19

CONCLUSION

A. Recap

This guide offers suggestions to address social work practice issues which
impact the working alliance: achieving a strengths perspective within the
assessment of the client and client system, understanding power differentials,
and acknowledging resistance to change. The case scenarios are replete with
opportunities to deepen student understanding of these critical practice concerns.

B. References

Blundo, R. (2001). Learning strengths-based practice: Challenging our personal

and professional frames. Families in Society, 82, 3, 296-304.
Bogo, M. (2006) Social Work Practice: Concepts, processes, and interviewing.
NY: Columbia University Press.
Bundy-Fazioli, K., Briar-Lawson, K., Hardiman, E.R., (2009). Qualitative
Examination of power between child welfare workers and parents. British
Journal of Social work, 39,8, 1447-1464.
Cowger, C.D.; Anderson,K. M.; and Snively, C.A. (2006) Chapter Six: Assessing
Strengths: The Political Context of Individual, Family , and Community
Empowerment. In: Dennis Saleebey (ed) The Strengths Perspective in
Social Work Practice (4th edition). 93-115.
DeJong, P; Miller, S.D. (1995). How to interview for client strengths. Social Work,
40, 6, 729-736.
Mandell, D. (2008). Power, care and vulnerability: Considering use of self in child
welfare work. Journal of Social Work Practice, 22, 2, 235-248.
Finn, J.L.; Jacobson, M. (2003). Just Practice. Iowa: Eddie Bowers Publishing.
Graybeal, C. (2001). Strengths-based social work assessment: Transforming the
dominant paradigm. Families in Society, May/June, 82, 3, 233-243.
Guiterrez, L and Lewis, E. (1999). Empowering Women of Color. NY: Columbia
University Press.
Hackett, S; Marsland, P. (1997). Perceptions of Power: An exploration of the
dynamics in the student-tutor –practice teacher relationship within child
protection placements. Social Work Education. 16(2): 44-61.
Lindhorst, T., Macy, R.J., Nurius, P. (2005). Special Section: Domestic Violence
and social work education contextualized assessment with battered
women: Strategic planning to cope with multiple harms. Journal of Social
Work Education. Spring/Summer, 41,2, 331-352.
NASW, National Association of Social Work (2008) available at:
http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/default.asp
Radley, M. (2008). Frontline welfare work: Understanding social work's role.
Families in Society, 89, 2, 184-192.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 20

Shuman, L.(2009) The skills of helping individuals, families, groups and

communities, 6th edtion. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
The National Resource Center for Permanency and Family Connections Practice
in Child Welfare (NRCPFC) at Hunter College
http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/info_services/family-
centered-practice.html
New York City's Child Welfare Community's Commitment to Quality Child
Welfare Practice available at:
http://www.nyc.gov/html/acs/downloads/pdf/quality_practice_model.pdf
Ragg, D.M. (2001). Building effective helping skills: The Foundation of Generalist
Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Shor, I. (1992). Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Justice. Ill:
University of Chicago Press.

C. Supportive Readings

Akin, B.A., Gregoire, T.K. (1997). Parents’ views on child welfare’s response to
addiction. Families in Society, 78, 4, 393-405.
Blundo, R. (2010) Engaging men in clinical practice: A solution-focused and
strengths based model. Families in Society, 91,3, 307-312.
Bogo, M., Dill, k. (2008). Walking the tightrope: Using power and authority in
Child Welfare Supervision. Child Welfare, 87, 6, 141-157.
Carlson, B.E. (2006). Best practices in the treatment of substance-abusing
women in child welfare. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions.
6,3, 97-115.
Fargion, S. (2006). Thinking professional social work: Expertise and professional
ideologies in social workers’ accounts of their practice. Journal of Social
Work, 6, 3, 255-273.
Finch, Jeanne B. (2009). Mothers in Recovery: Their perspectives on
Motherhood and Substance Abuse. Lambert Academic Press.
Folsom, W. Christensen, M., Avery, L., and Moore, C. (2003) The co-occurrence
of child abuse and domestic violence: An issue of service delivery for
social service professions. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal.
20,5, 375-387.
Mallon, G. and Hess, P. (eds.). (2005). Child Welfare of the Twenty-First
Century: A handbook of practices, policies and programs. NY: Columbia
University Press.
Murphy, S.Y., Hunter, A.G. and Johnson, D.J. (2008). Transforming caregiving:
African American custodial grandmothers and the child welfare system.
Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 35, 2, 67-89.
Oyserman, D. Mowbray, C.T. and Mears. P.A. (2000). Parenting among mothers
with a serious mental illness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70,
296-315.
Reich, J.A. (2005). Fixing families: Parents, power and the child welfare system.
NY: Routledge.
Finch, Social Work Practice with Individuals 21

Samantrai, K. (1991). Clinical social work in public child welfare practice. Social
Work, 36,4, 359-361.
Schmid, J.E., Pollack, S. (2009). Developing shared knowledge: family group
conferencing as a means of negotiating power in the child welfare system.
Practice: Social Work in Action, 21, 3, 175-188.
Tew, J. (2006). Understanding power and powerlessness: Towards a framework
for emancipator practice in social work. Journal of Social Work, 6, 1, 33-
51.
Waldrop, D. (2003). Caregiving issues for grandmothers raising their
grandchildren. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 7, 3,
201-223.