Design of unreinforced

masonry to BS 5628
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 Design in unreinforced masonry to BS 5628
 Structural masonry was traditionally very widely used
in civil and structural works including tunnels,
bridges, retaining walls and sewerage systems (Fig.
5.1). However, the introduction of steel and concrete
with their superior strength and cost characteristics
led to a sharp decline in the use of masonry for these
applications.

 Over the past two decades or so, masonry has

recaptured some of the market lost to steel and
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 concrete due largely to the research and marketing
work sponsored in particular by the Brick Devel
opment Association. For instance, everybody now
knows that ‘brick is beautiful’. Less well appreciated
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 There are undisputed advantages of using brick work
masonry in flood prone areas. On this basis it has been
argued that it is faster and cheaper to build certain types of
buildings using only masonry rather than using a
combination of materials to provide these properties.
 Brick manufacturers have also pointed out that, unlike
steelwork, masonry does not require regular maintenance
nor, indeed, does it suffer from the durability problems
which have plagued concrete.
 The application of reinforcing and prestressing tech niques
to masonry has considerably improved its structural
properties and hence the appeal of this material to
designers.
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 Despite the above, masonry is primarily used
nowadays for the construction of load-bearing and
non-load-bearing walls (Fig. 5.2).
 These structures are principally designed to resist
lateral and vertical loading. The lateral loading arises
mainly from the wind pressure acting on the wall.

 The vertical loading is attributable to dead plus

imposed loading from any supported floors, roofs, etc.
and/or self-weight of the wall.
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 Materials
 Structural masonry basically consists of bricks or
blocks bonded together using mortar or grout. In
cavity walls, wall ties complying with BS EN 845-1 are
also used to tie together the two skins of masonry.
 Fig. 5.3 shows some examples of the wall ties used in
masonry construction. In external walls, and indeed
some internal walls depending on the type of
construction, a damp proof course is also necessary to
prevent moisture ingress to the building fabric
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 Materials
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 Materials
 According to BS EN 771-1, clay bricks can primarily be
specified in terms of:
 • density
 • compressive strength
 • durability
 • active soluble salt content
 •water absorption

 Clay bricks with a gross density of less than or equal to 1000

kg/mm3 are classified as LD (low density) units and those
with a gross density exceeding 1000 kg/m3 as HD (high
density) units. Clay bricks available in the UK are generally
HD type units.
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Design of vertically loaded masonry walls

This code states that the primary aim of design is to

ensure an adequate margin of safety against the ultimate
limit state being reached. In the case of vertically loaded
walls this is achieved by ensuring that the ultimate
design load (N) does not exceed the design load
resistance of the wall (NR ):
N ≤ NR
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The ultimate design load is a function of the actual loads
bearing down on the wall. The design load resistance is
related to the design strength of the masonry wall
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The ultimate design load is a function of the actual loads
bearing down on the wall. The design load resistance is
related to the design strength of the masonry wall
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ULTIMATE DESIGN LOADS, N
The loads acting on a structure can principally be
divided into three basic types, namely dead loads,
imposed (or live) loads and wind loads. Generally, the
ultimate design load is obtained by multiplying the
characteristic (dead/imposed/wind) loads (Fk ) by the
appropriate partial safety factor for loads (γf ).

N = γf Fk
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ULTIMATE DESIGN LOADS, N
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ULTIMATE DESIGN LOADS, N
The characteristic values of dead loads (Gk ) and
imposed loads (Qk ) are obtained from the following: (i)
BS 648: Schedule of Weights for Building Materials; (ii)
BS 6399: Design Loadings for Buildings, Part 1: Code of
Practice for Dead and Imposed Loads, Part 3: Code of
Practice for Imposed Roof Loads. The charac teristic
wind load (Wk ) is calculated in accordance with BS
6399: Part 2: Wind loads.
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ULTIMATE DESIGN LOADS, N (BS 5628)
, with structures subject to only dead and imposed loads
the partial safety factors for the ultimate limit state are
usually taken to be 1.4 and 1.6 respectively. The ultimate
design load for this load combination is given by

N = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
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ULTIMATE DESIGN LOADS, N (BS 5628)
In assessing the effect of dead, imposed and wind load
for the ultimate limit state, the partial safety factor is
generally taken to be 1.2 for all the load types.

Hence N = 1.2(Gk + Qk + Wk )
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DESIGN COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH The design
compressive strength of masonry is given by

where fk m characteristic compressive strength of

masonry
γm partial safety factor for materials subject to
compression β capacity reduction factor
β capacity reduction factor
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Characteristic compressive strengths of masonry, fk
(clause 19, BS 5628)

The basic characteristic compressive strengths of

normally bonded masonry constructed under lab
oratory conditions and tested at an age of 28 days are
given in Table 5.9.
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Partial safety factor for materials (γm )

Table 5.10 shows recommended values of the partial

safety factor for materials, γm , for use in determining
the design compressive strength of masonry. The table
also gives values of γm to be used in assessing the design
strength of masonry in f lexural. Note that the values of
γm used for flexure are generally lower than the
corresponding values for compression. This is different
from the 1978 edition of BS 5628 in which they are
identical
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It will be seen from Table 5.10 that γm depends on (i) the
quality of the masonry units and (ii) the quality control
during construction.
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The quality of masonry units may be Category I or
Category II, which indicates the consistency of the
strength of the units. Category I units are those with a
declared compressive strength with a prob ability of
failure to reach that strength not exceed ing 5 per cent
whereas Category II units are those that do not conform
to this condition.
It is the manufacturer’s responsibility to declare the
category of the masonry units supplied.
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Capacity reduction factor (β)

Masonry walls which are tall and slender are likely to be

less stable under compressive loading than walls which
are short and stocky. Similarly, eccentric loading will
reduce the compressive load capacity of the wall. In both
cases, the reduction in load capacity reflects the
increased risk of failure due to instability rather than
crushing of the materials. These two effects are taken
into account by means of the capacity reduction factor, β
(Table 5.11).
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Capacity reduction factor (β)
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Capacity reduction factor (β)

This factor generally reduces the design compressive

strength of elements such as walls and columns, in some
cases by as much as 70 per cent, and is a function of the
following factors: (a) slenderness ratio and (b)
eccentricity of loading.
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Slenderness ratio (SR).

The slenderness ratio indicates the type of failure which

may arise when a member is subject to compressive
loading. Thus, walls which are short and stocky will have
a low slenderness ratio and tend to fail by crushing.
Walls which are tall and slender will have higher
slenderness ratios and will also fail by crushing.
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Slenderness ratio (SR).
the slenderness ratio depends upon the height of the
member, the cross-sectional area of loaded wall and the
restraints at the member ends. BS 5628 defines
slenderness ratio, SR, as:
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(i)Effective Height (hef ).

The effective height of a load-bearing wall depends on

the actual height of the member and the type of restraint
at the wall ends. Such restraint that exists is normally
provided by any supported floors, roofs, etc. and may be
designated ‘simple’ (i.e. pin-ended) or ‘enhanced’ (i.e.
partially fixed), depending on the actual construction
details used.
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(i)Effective Height (hef ).

According to clause 24.3.2.1 of BS 5628 the effective

height of a wall may be taken as: 1. 0.75 times the clear
distance between lateral supports which provide
enhanced resistance to lateral movements; or 2. the clear
distance between lateral supports which provide simple
resistance to lateral movement.
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(Effective thickness (tef ).

For single leaf walls the effective thickness is taken as the

actual thick ness (t) of the wall (Fig. 5.12(a)):

tef = t (single leaf wall)

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Eccentricity of vertical loading.
In addi ion to the slenderness ratio, the capacity reduc
tion factor is also a function of the eccentricity of
loading. When considering the design of walls it is not
realistic to assume that the loading will be applied truly
axially but rather that it will occur at some eccentricity to
the centroid of the wall.
This eccentricity is normally expressed as a fraction of
the wall thickness. Clause 27 of BS 5628 recommends
that the loads transmitted to a wall by a single floor or
roof acts at one third of the length of the bearing surface
from the loaded edge (
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 EXAMPLE
The internal load-bearing brick wall shown in Fig. 5.17
supports an ultimate axial load of 140 kN per metre run
including self-weight of the wall. The wall is 102.5 mm
thick and 4 m long. Assuming the masonry units
conform to Category II and the construction control
category is ‘normal’, design the wall
 EXAMPLE
The internal load-bearing brick wall shown in Fig. 5.17
supports an ultimate axial load of 140 kN per metre run
including self-weight of the wall. The wall is 102.5 mm
thick and 4 m long. Assuming the masonry units
conform to Category II and the construction control
category is ‘normal’, design the wall
 EXAMPLE
LOADING

Ultimate design load,

N = 140 kN m−1 = 140 N mm−1

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LOADING

Ultimate design load,

N = 140 kN m−1 = 140 N mm−1

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DESIGN VERTICAL LOAD RESISTANCE OF WALL
Characteristic compressive strength
Basic value = fk
Check modification factor
Small plan area – modification factor does not apply since
horizontal cross-sectional area of wall, A = 0.1025 × 4.0 = 0.41 m2 >
0.2 m2.

Narrow brick wall – modification factor is 1.15 since wall is one

brick thick. Hence modified characteristic compressive strength is
1.15fk

Safety factor for materials (γm)

Manufacture and construction controls categories are, respectively,
‘II’ and ‘normal’. Hence from Table 5.10, γm for compression = 3.5
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DESIGN VERTICAL LOAD RESISTANCE OF WALL
Capacity reduction factor (β)
Eccentricity
Since wall is axially loaded assume eccentricity of loading, ex
< 0.05t
Slenderness ratio (SR) Concrete slab provides ‘enhanced’
resistance to wall
Safety factor for materials (γm)

Hence, from Table 5.11, β = 0.68.

 EXAMPLE
Design vertical load resistance of wall (NR)

.
 EXAMPLE
Design vertical load resistance of wall (NR)

.
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