Formulas from Trigonometry:

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1 sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

tan A±tan B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B tan(A ± B) = 1∓tan A tan B
2 2
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos
q A − sin A
2 tan A
tan 2A = 1−tan2 A
sin A2 = ± 1−cos A
2
q
cos A2 = ± 1+cos 2
A
tan A2 = 1+cos
sin A
A
sin2 A = 21 − 12 cos 2A cos2 A = 21 + 12 cos 2A
sin A + sin B = 2 sin 21 (A + B) cos 12 (A − B) sin A − sin B = 2 cos 21 (A + B) sin 21 (A − B)
cos A + cos B = 2 cos 21 (A + B) cos 12 (A − B) cos A − cos B = 2 sin 21 (A + B) sin 21 (B − A)
sin A sin B = 12 {cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)} cos A cos B = 12 {cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)}
sin A cos B = 21 {sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)} cos(θ) = sin(θ + π/2)
Differentiation Formulas:
d dv

v(du/dx)−u(dv/dx)
dx
(uv) = u dx + du
dx
v d
dx v
u
= v2
dy dy du d du
Chain rule: dx = du dx dx
sin u = cos u dx
d du d 2 du
dx
cos u = − sin u dx dx
tan u = sec u dx
d −1 √ 1 du π −1 π d −1 √ −1 du , (0 < cos−1


dx
sin u = 1−u dx
2 , − 2
< sin u < 2
dx
cos u = 1−u2 dx
u < π)
d −1 1 du π −1 π d u u du
dx
tan u = 2
1+u dx
, − 2
< tan u < 2 dx
e = e dx
d
dx
ln u = 1 du
u dx
d
dx
loga u = logua e du
dx
, a 6= 0, 1
Integration Formulas:
Z Z
Integration by parts: u dv = uv − v du
Z Z
du
= ln |u| eu du = eu
Z u
au
Z
au du = , a > 0, a 6= 1 sin u du = − cos u
Z ln a Z
cos u du = sin u tan u du = − ln cos u
Z Z
sin2 u du = u
2 − sin 2u
4 = 12 (u − sin u cos u) tan2 u du = tan u − u
Z Z
du
cos2 u du = u
2 + sin 2u
4 = 12 (u + sin u cos u) = a1 tan−1 ua
Z Z u2 + a2
du   du
2 − a2
= 1
2a ln u−a
u+a
√ = sin−1 ua
u a2 − u2
√ √
Z Z
du du
√ = ln(u + u2 + a2 ) √ = ln(u + u2 − a2 )
Z u2 + a2 Z u2 − a2
ax ax
eax sin bx dx = e (a sina2bx−b
+b2
cos bx)
eax cos bx dx = e (a cos bx+b sin bx)
a2 +b2
Z Z  
x2
x sin ax dx = sina2ax − x cos
a
ax
x2 sin ax dx = 2x
a2 sin ax + 2
a3 − a cos ax
Z Z
sin2 ax dx = x2 − sin4a2ax x cos ax dx = cos ax
a2
+ x sin ax
a
Z  2  Z
x2 cos ax dx = 2xa2 cos ax + x
a −
2
a3
sin ax cos2 ax dx = x
2 + sin 2ax
4a
Z Z
eax
tan2 ax dx = tanaax − x xeax dx = 1


a x− a
Z Z
x2 1


ln x dx = x ln x − x x ln x dx = 2 ln x − 2

1
Summation Formulas:
N2 ∞
X
k αN1 − αN2 +1 X 1
α = , α 6= 1 ak = , |a| < 1
k=N1
1−α k=0
1−a
∞ n
X a X 1 − an+1
kak = , |a| < 1 k
a = , a 6= 1
k=0
(1 − a)2 k=0
1−a
n
X a{1 − (n + 1)an + nan+1 }
kak =
k=0
(1 − a)2

Signals: d
δ(t) = dt
u(t) δ[n] = u[n] − u[n − 1]
Z ∞ ∞
X
∗
hx1 (t), x2 (t)i = x1 (t)x2 (t) dt hx1 [n], x2 [n]i = x1 [n]x∗2 [n]
−∞ n=−∞
Ev{x(t)} = 21 {x(t) + x(−t)} Od{x(t)} = 12 {x(t) − x(−t)}
Complex Exponential Signals:
ejω0 t ejω0 n
Distinct signals for distinct w0 Identical signals for values of w0 separated by multiples of 2π
Periodic for any choice of w0 Periodic only if w0 /(2π) = m/N ∈ Q
Fundamental frequency w0 Fundamental frequency w0 /m
Fundamental period: Fundamental period:
w0 = 0: undefined w0 = 0: one
w0 6= 0: 2π/w0 w0 6= 0: 2πm/w0

Systems:
System H is linear if H{ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)} = aH{x1 (t)} + bH{x2 (t)}.
System H is time invariant if H{x(t − t0 )} = y(t − t0 ).
System H is memoryless if the current output does not depend on future or past inputs.
System H is invertible if distinct input signals produce distinct output signals.
System H is invertible if an inverse system G exists which “undoes” the action of H.
System H is causal if the current output does not depend on future inputs.
LTI system H is causal iff h(t) = 0 ∀ t < 0.
Bounded: x(t) is bounded if ∃ B ∈ R, B > 0, such that |x(t)| ≤ B ∀ t ∈ R.
System H is BIBO stable if everyZbounded input signal produces a bounded output signal.
∞
LTI system H is BIBO stable iff |h(t)| dt < ∞.
Z ∞ −∞ Z ∞
y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t) = x(τ )h(t − τ ) dτ = x(t − τ )h(τ ) dτ
−∞ −∞
∞
X ∞
X
y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n] = x[k]h[n − k] = x[n − k]h[k]
k=−∞ k=−∞
Z t
d
s(t) = h(τ ) dτ h(t) = dt
s(t)
−∞
n
X
s[n] = h[k] h[n] = s[n] − s[n − 1]
k=−∞