1.

1 INTRODUCTION
An automobile is a self-propelled machine used on the ground for transportation of
passengers and goods from one place to another place. Automobile engineering or . is the
branch of engineering that deals with all types of automobiles like car, bus, truck, jeep, motor
cycle etc., and the means of propelling them. Automobile or automotive refers to one which
itself can move. The study of aero plane, helicopter, rocket etc., which fly in air comes under
Aeronautical engineering and marine engineering deals with ship, motor boat etc., which sail
in water. Today, of course, the automobile vehicle has become a basic necessity and business
of making and servicing automobiles has become one of the biggest businesses in the world.

I.C. Engines are used, in order to obtain motive power of the vehicle. In recent years,
huge changes are made in the design of automobiles to provide safety, ease of operation,
reliability, comfortness, less fuel consumption etc.

Types of Automobiles:

1.On the Basis of Load

a) Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV), e.g. trucks, busés, dtc.

b) Light transport vehicle (LTV) or Light motor vehicle (LMV),

e.g. pickup, station wagon, cars, jeeps, etc .

2.On the Basis of Wheels :

• Two wheeler vehicle, for example : Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.

• Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Autorickshaw,

• Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.

• Four wheeler vehicle, for example : Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.

• Six wheeler vehicle, for example : Big trucks with two gear axles

3. On the basis of Fuel Used:

• Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.

• Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.

• Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.

• Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.

• Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles, where LPG is liquefied

4.On the basis of body style

• Sedan, Hatchback car.

• Coupe car, Station wagon, Convertible.

 • Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.

• 5. On the basis of Transmission:

• Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.

• Semi-automatic

• Automatic: In an automatic transmission, gears are not required to be changed manually.

6.On the basis of Drive:

• Left-hand drive- USA

• Right-hand drive- INDIA

7.Position of Engine:

Engine in Front – Most of the vehicles have engine in the front. Example : most of the cars, buses,
trucks.

Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear. Example : Nano car,
Volkswagen beetle.

• 8.Driving Axle

o Front wheel drive — Volkswagen Passat, Chevrolet Cruze, Hyundai Sonata, Toyota
Camry,......

o Rear wheel drive — All Indian Vehicles

o All wheel drive — Jeep

The Automobile consists of following basic components or parts. These are,

1. The power plant: It is nothing but the source of power or engine which provides motive
power to perform various functions in the vehicle. The power plant generally consists of an
internal combustion engine (I.C. Engine) which may be either of spark ignition (S.I), or of
compression ignition type. Sometimes gas turbines are also used in certain cars.

2. The basic structure: This includes frame and wheel assembly, suspension system, axles,
etc.

3. The power train (transmission system): The power train carries the power from the engine
to road wheels. It consists of clutch, (for non-automatic transmissions) gear box, propeller
shaft, differential.

4. The super structure or car body.

5. The accessories which include electrical system, radio, wind shield wiper, air conditioner
etc.
6.The controls: It consists of steering system, Brakes, etc.
 Fig.: Layout of an automobile
Automotive Engines are generally classified according to following different categories:
1. Internal combustion (IC) and External Combustion (EC)
2. Type of fuel: Petrol, Diesel, Gas, Bio / Alternative Fuels
3. Number of strokes – Two stroke Petrol, Two-Stroke Diesel, Four Stroke Petrol / Four Stroke
Diesel
4. Type of ignition such as Spark Ignition, Compression Ignition
5. Number of Cylinders – From 1 to up to 18 cylinders (in a car)
6. Arrangement of cylinders which are Inline, V, W, Horizontal, Radial
7.The motion of Pistons – Reciprocatory, Rotary
8.Size / Capacity
9.Bore-to-Stroke Ratio
10.Engine cooling methods such as Air-cooled, Liquid-cooled (Water-based), Oil-cooled (Oil is cooled
separately)
11.Breathing such as Naturally Aspirated, Turbocharged / Supercharged

1.2 BASIC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

Top dead centre (TDC)

When the piston is at its top most position i.e., the position closest to cylinder head, it
is called top dead centre.

Bottom dead centre When the piston is at its lowest position i.e., the position farthest from
the cylinder head, it is called bottom dead centre.
Bore
The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is denoted by 'D'.
Stroke length or stroke
The distance travelled by the piston between TDC and BDC is called stroke of the
piston and is denoted by 'L'.

Clearance volume
When the piston is in TDC position the cylinder volume above it, is called clearance
volume and is denoted by 'Vc'.

Swept volume or piston displacement

 The volume swept by piston while moving from TDC to BDC is called swept volume.
It is denoted by , Vs' .

Vs = L
Compression ratio
It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above the piston at
TDe. It is the ratio of total volume of the cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance volume. It is
denoted by ‘r’ Vs +V

Vc
for Petrol engines, it ranges from 8 to 12 for
diesel engines, it ranges from 15 to 24.

1.31 Mean effective pressure

As piston performs power stroke, cylinder pressure decreases. Thus it is required to
refer an average effective pressure throughout the whole power stroke. It is expressed in bars.

1.32 Power
It is the work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same
amount of work In a lesser time.

1.3 10 Indicated Power (I.P.)

The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power. It is
expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram.

1.3 11 Brake Power (B.P.)

This is the actual power available at the crank shaft. The indicated power minus
various power losses in the engine like friction and pumping losses in the engine, gives Brake
power. It is measured by using a Dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW).

1.3 12 Engine torque

It is the force of rotation acting about the crank shaft axis at any given instant of
time. It is given by T = F.r., where
T = engine torque, Nm
F = force applied to the crank, N r
= effective crank radius, m

1.4 MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE

Fig. The various components of the basic engine
1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms

1.5 CYLINDERS
The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to develop power. It
has to with stand very high pressure and temperature (around 2800°C). A cylinder block is
one which houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder block and crank case are made integral,
then the construction is called 'Mono block'. The cylinder material should be such that it
should retain strength at higher temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should
resist rapid wear and tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally cast iron is
used. For heavy duty engines alloy steels are used.

For cooling water circulation, passages are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder
block also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages.

At the lower end of cylinder block, crank case is made integral with the block. At the
top, cylinder block is attached with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves.
Besides, other parts like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump,
etc., are also attached to it.

The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast Iron and aluminium
alloys. The cast iron material has the following advantages.
1. It is relatively cheap and posses good foundry properties.
2. The co-efficient of thermal expansion for cast iron is low.
3. It has high machinability and does not wear too much.
 The aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the following advantages.
1. It has higher thermal conductivity than cast-iron. This results in efficient cooling of
engine. so that higher compression ratios may be used.
2. The density of aluminium is about one third that of cast iron. It is a light material.
But considering lesser strength of aluminium, thicker sections have to be used to carry
same load, Further, in case of any loss of coolant, it cannot with stand high temperature and
damage may occur. It wears more than cast iron .

The grey cast iron for cylinder block has the composition; carbon - 3.5 %, silicon - 2.5
%, manganese - 0.65 %.

The Aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the composition.

Silicon - 11%, Manganese 0.5%, Magnesium 0.4%

1.6 CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS

Multi cylinder engines are preferred over single cylinder engines due to reasons like
(i) giving smooth torque output (ii) Lighter fly wheel (iii) engine compactness (iv) Easy
balancing. In multi cylinder engines, the arrangement of cylinders is very important. The
following cylinder arrangements are used to give better performance of the engine. They are ,

l. In line arrangement 2.
Opposed cylinders type

3. V - engine
4. Radial engine

1. In line arrangement
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in a line i.e., placed side by side vertically
with a common crank shaft. In this type reciprocating forces are nearly balanced.

Fig. Inline arrangement

2. Opposed cylinders type

The two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to each other i.e., they are
placed 1800 apart facing each other with a common crank shaft. In this type, the
reciprocating parts are perfectly balanced. As two cylinders are not in line, the force in
connecting rod produces a rocking couple.

Fig. Opposed type

3. V - engine
In this type, two cylinders are placed with their axes at 60°_ The cylinders are
arranged on two arms of "letter V with a common crank case and crank shaft It is more
compact and rigid and hence runs more smoothly at high speeds.

Fig V-engine

4.Radial engine
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in radial fashion with a common
crank shaft which is placed at the centre as in figure 1.6. The number of cylinders generally
used is 5, 7, 9 etc., to obtain uniform firing intervals. This type is compact in size and gives
higher Brake power per weight ratio. This is mainly used in air craft engines.
 Fig Radial engine

1.7 LINERS (SLEEVES)

Engines makes use of removable liners which are pressed into cylinder holes. The
cylinder liners are in the form of barrels and used to reduce the cylinder wear and hence to
increase cylinder bore life. The cylinder wear is more when cylinder block is made up of
aluminium alloy. The liners can be inserted in the cylinder bore to reduce this wear.
Whenever the liners worn-out, they can be replaced easily. Whenever a cylinder block is
rebored beyond allowable limits, liners are used to restore its original size. These are cast
centrifugally and made up of special alloy iron containing silicon, manganese, nickel and
chromium.

The liners may be further hardened by nitriding or chromium plating. In nitriding

process, liners are exposed to ammonia vapour at 5000C and then quenched. Chromium
plating improves their resistance to wear and corrosion. There are two types of liners (I) Dry
liners and (2) Wet liners.

1. Dry liners

Fig. Dry liners

The dry liners are quite thin and uses block metal to give it full length support. These liners
are made in the form of barrel. and a flange is provided at the top which keeps the liner in to
position. It is necessary to machine the liner surface accurately both from inside and outside,
as the outer surface of the liner makes contact with cylinder block. By shrinking the liner, it
is put in to the cylinder bore.

If the liner is too loose in the cylinder block, results in poor heat dissipation because
of absence of good contact between them. This will result in higher operating temperature.
Improper lubrication results in piston scuffing. Too tight a liner is even worse than the too
loose case. This produces distortion of cylinder block, liner cracking, hot spots and scuffing.
2. Wet liners
Wet liner is pressed into bore of cylinder block and is supported at top and bottom only.
These liners makes direct contact with cooling water on the outside and hence does not
require accurate machining on the entire outer surface. A flange is provided at the top which
fits into the groove in the cylinder block. Three grooves are provided at the bottom, middle
one is empty and top and bottom grooves are inserted with rubber packing’s. For water
leakage, drainage arrangements are provided from the middle groove. The wet liners are
sometimes coated with aluminium on the outside to make the surface corrosion resistant.

Fig Wet liners

1.8 COMPARISON OF DRY AND WET LINERS

Dry liners
1. They may be provided either in the original design or even after wards.
2. No leak proof joint is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is not simple.
4. As dry liners does not make direct contact with cooling water, cylinder cooling is ineffective

5. Accurate machining of both block and outer liner surface is required, for perfect contact
between them.

Wet liners
1. These have to be included in the original cylinder design.
2. A leak proof joint between the cylinder casting & liner is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is simple.
4. As cooling water is in direct contact with liner, better cylinder cooling is possible. 5. Accurate
machining on the outer liner surface is not necessary
1.9 PISTON
The piston is a reciprocating part of the engine and converts the combustion pressure
in the cylinder to a force on the crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the
cylinder bore. The space is provided between piston and cylinder wall and is called
"clearance". This 'clearance' is necessary to provide space for a film of lubricant. Pistons are
made of aluminium alloys, cast steel, cast iron or chrome nickel. Aluminium alloy pistons are
used in modern automobiles.
Functions
I. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high pressure gases from combustion
chamber into crank case.
2.It transmits the force of explosion to the crank
shaft. 3.It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

Fig. Typical I.C, engine piston

A typical l.C. engine piston is as shown in figure 1.8. The piston almost has the shape
of an Inverted bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In some engines,
pistons may be specially designed to form desired shape of the combustion chamber. At the
piston top, few grooves are cut to accommodate the piston rings and the bands left between
the grooves are known as "Lands". They support the rings against gas pressure. The portion
below rings is called piston skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the
piston pin.

The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.
I. Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston which is desirable
from inertia point of view].

2.It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.

The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.

I. It is not as strong as cast iron, hence thicker sections have to be used.
2. Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it. It causes a
sort of grinding.

3. It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls, thus decreases cylinder life.
4. The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is their un equal
coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.

1.10 CONTROL OF PISTON SLAP

The use of Aluminium alloy piston with cast iron cylinder has a drawback of engine
slap. If cold clearance is kept just sufficient, there is danger of seizure at higher operating
temperatures and if it is kept larger, the engine knocks or slaps when cold. Different methods
are used to overcome this difficult, they are,

a) Cutting horizontal sloe: 1 his method keeps the heat away from the lower part of the
piston. By cutting horizontal slot in the portion just below the oil control ring, skirt portion
does not become very hot and hence does not expand so much.

Fig. (a) Piston with horizontal slot Fig (b) Heat dam construction

b) Heat dam: By making heat dam i.e., by cutting a groove near the top of the piston, the
heat flow to lower part of piston can be reduced. Hence the skirt runs cooler and does not
expand too much.

c) Verticle or T slot: In this type, the top of T tends to retard the heat transfer from head to
the piston skirt. The verticle slot allows the skirt of the piston to close when heated i.e., it
allows piston skirt to expand without increase in diameter. However mechanical strength is
decreased on account of slot. Due to presence of this slot, the diameter reduces permanently
which increases engine slap. Hence fully split skirts are not used.
 d) Split skirt: In a split skirt piston, skirt is either partially or completely split. When the
piston warms and begins to expand, it cannot find in the cylinder since the skirt merely closes
the split.

e) Tapered pistons: Sometimes the pistons are turned taper, the crown side being smaller in
diameter than the skirt end. As crown portion is exposed to higher tempt than skirt, that side
expands more than skirt and piston diameter becomes uniform under operating conditions.

f) Special alloy pistons: Special alloy having coefficient of expansion nearly equal to that
for cast iron (or low value) have been used in the manufacture of pistons. One such alloy is
"LOEX" alloy It is an alloy having 12-15% silicon, 1.5-3% nickel and 1 % of each of
magnesium and copper Such pistons are costlier.

g) Wire wound pistons : A band of steel wire is wound between the piston pin and oil
controlring. thus resticting the expansion of skirt.

h) Bimetal pistons: The pistons are made from both steel and aluminium. Steel is used to
manufacture skirt portion and aluminium alloy cast inside to form piston head and piston pin
bosses. For steel, coefficient of thermal expansion is quite small, piston will not expand much
and hence smaller cold clearances can be maintained.

1.11 PISTON RINGS

Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are called
compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The bottom ring is called
oil ring, (may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil from the cylinder walls and
return it through slots to the piston ring grooves.

A properly constructed and fitted ring will rub against the cylinder wall with good contact all
around the cylinder. The ring will ride in grooves that are cut into the piston head. The

.
material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing silicon and
manganese. It has good heat and WCi.1rresisting qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled
face have also been introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings vary
depending on the engine design. It varies from two to four.
Generally the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring grooves. It
exerts uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is to be cut at the ends so that while
inserting the ring, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the ring
groove. The gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder.

Functions:

1. It form a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion chamber will not escape into
the crank case.

2. It provide easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
3. It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls through out the stroke length. This
reduces ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of oil film is to be controlled and the oil should
not go up into the combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon deposits.

1.12 PISTON PIN

Piston pin is also known as wrist pin or gudgeon pin, used to connect Piston and
connecting rod. It transfers combustion chamber pressure and piston forces to the connecting
rod. It is in tubular shape to provide adequate strength with minimum weight. It passes
through the piston bosses and small end of the connecting rod. It is made of low carbon case
hardened steel (carbon - 15%, silicon - 0.3%, manganese - 0.5%).

Piston pins are installed and secured to provide a bearing action in the following three ways.
1.The pin is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss and has a bearing in
the connecting rod small end. This permits the connecting rod to swivel as required by the
combined reciprocal and rotary motion of piston and crank shaft.

2.The piston pin is fastened to the connecting rod by means of a bolt and uses the piston bosses
for bearings. Nowadays, bolt has been replaced by interference fit.

3.A floating pin is used which is free in both the connecting rod and piston. This arrangement is
most commonly used. Circlips are used to prevent end movements.
 Fig (a) Piston pin fastened to piston

Fig. (b) Piston pin locked to connecting rod

Fig. (c) Floating Piston Pin

1.13 CO NECTING ROD
The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end of
rod oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates (turns). It converts
reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the crank shaft. The upper end of the
rod has a hole through it for the piston pin. The lower end must be split type. A combination
of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial stresses are due to gas
pressure in the cylinder and inertia force caused by reciprocating motion. Bending stresses are
caused due to centrifugal effects. Connecting rods are manufactured by casting and forging
processes. The rod has an I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum
weight. Generally rods are made by drop forging of steel or duralumin and also cast from
malleable cast iron.
 Fig.

Fig. Connecting Rod

1.14 CRANK SHAFT
The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the power
from connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank shafts are made of
alloy steel or cast iron.

Fig. Crank Shaft

A simplified sketch of the crank shaft for a four cylinder engine is as-in figure 1.14(a).
It consists of
I. Main journals
2.Crank pins
3.Crank webs
4.Counter weights

5.Oil holes.

The crank shaft is held in position by a number of main bearings and they form axis
for the rotation of crank shaft. Their number is always one more or one less than the number
of cylinders. The crank pins are the journals for the connecting rod big end bearings and are
supported by the crank webs. The distance between the axis of the main journal and the crank
pin centre lines is called 'crank through'. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crank
pins through 'crank webs for lubricating big end bearings.
 When the engine is running, due to rotation of both crank shaft and connecting rod big
end, each crank pin will be subjected to centrifugal forces. This will tend to bend the crank
shaft. To avoid this counter weights are used. The counter weights are formed as integral part
of the crank web or may be attached separately as in fig. 1.14(b) and 1.14( c).

On the front of the crank shaft, it is mounted with

i) Timing gear or sprocket which drives the crank shaft.
ii) Vibration damper iii) Pulley for driving the water pump, fan and the generator. On the rear
end, it is mounted with a fly wheel.

On the main bearing journals, thrust bearing is located so as to support the loads in the
direction of shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces etc.

Fig. Integral Fig. Attached separately

1.15 (a) Valves
Each engine cylinder has two valves however some special racing engines use four
valves per cylinder. Air fuel mixture is admitted to the engine through inlet valve and burned
gases escape through the exhaust valve. The valves also must seal the combustion space
tightly.

Since air-fuel mixture admits into cylinder with lesser speed compared to velocity of
exhaust gases which Icaves under pressure, inlet valves are made larger than exhaust valves.
The inlet and exhaust valves are 45% and 38% of the cylinder bore respectively. The valve
face angle with the plane of valve head is usually kept 45° or 30°. The movement of the
valves is actuated by an eccentric projection called a cam moving on a rotating shaft - the cam
shaft.

The inlet and exhaust valves uses different materials as they are subjected to different
operating conditions. The inlet valves are exposed to a temperature of 5000 C and exhaust valves
have to operate in more severe conditions. To prevent burning, the valve must give off heat to the
valve guide and to the valve seat.

Silicon - Chrome steel (Carbon - 0.4%, nickel- 0.5%, manganese - 0.5%, silicon -
3.5%, chromium - 8%) is the material used for inlet valves. For exhaust valves, molybdenum
is added to it. Recently austenitic steels are used for exhaust valves. To make it corrosion
resistant, the valve may be coated with aluminium.

The engine valves may be classified into

I. Poppet valve
2.Sleeve valve
3.Rotary valve
Poppet valve is universally used for automobile engines.

Poppet Valve
Its name is derived due to its motion of popping up and down. As the shape resembles
a mushroom, this valve is also called as 'mushroom' valve. It consists of a head and a stem. It
is simple in construction and self centering. Seal ing efficiency maintenance is much easier
with this poppet valve. 1.15 (b) Valve Cooling

It is necessary to cool the exhaust valve directly or indirectly as it reaches very high
temperature i.e. about 750°C or even more. Therefore cooling of exhaust valves becomes very
important and is done by providing cooling water jackets near the valve.

Fig (a) Poppet Valve Fig. (b) Sodium Cooled Valve

In some heavy duty engines and air craft engines, sodium cooled valves are used. These
valves have a hollow head and stem which is partly filled (about 40% volume of the stem)
with sodium or a mixture of salts. Sodium is a high conductivity metal which melts at 105°
C.lt is in liquid state at operating temperatures. When the valve is in operation, the up and
down movement of sodium transfers the heat to the stem, valve guide, cylinder block and to
the cooling water circulating in water jackets. This arrangements cools the valve by about
100° C.The sodium goes up and absorbs heat from valve head and while coming down
transfer heat to stem etc.

1.16 VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The valves located in .he cylinder head are operated by an eccentric projection called cam
which is driven at half the crank shaft speed. Different valve operating mechanisms are used
and are classified in to

a) Side valve mechanism

b) Over head valve mechanism
c) Over head inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism.

a) Side Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is used for L-head engines. In this type, inlet
and exhaust valves are mounted in a single row and operated from the same crank shaft.
Nowadays, this mechanism is obsolete due to complicated shape of the combustion chamber
which leads to detonation.

b) Over Head Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is suitable for I and F head designs. The
cam operates the valve lifter which in turn actuates the push rod. This action rotates the rocker
arm about a shaft or a ball joint in some designs, to cause one end to push down on the valve
stem to open the valve.

Advantages
1.Higher volumetric efficiency.
2.Leaner air-fuel mixtures can be burnt.
3.Higher compressions can be used.
 Fig. Detailed view of side valve mechanism

Fig. (a) Side valve mechanism. Fig. (b) Over head valve mechanism

Fig. (c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust Fig. (d) Cam shaft valve
mechanism
 Fig. (e) Valve lifter Fig (1) Valve operation

1.17 COMPONENTS OF THE VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The essential components of a valve actuating mechanism are
(a) Cam Shaft: It provides a means for opening the valves. It carries one cam for each valve
to be operated. It also provides a drive for the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel
pump. The cam shaft is driven by the crank shaft by means of timing gears or chain drive at
half the speed of crank shaft. It is forged from alloy steel or cast from hardenable cast iron
and is case hardened.

(b) Valve tappet (valve lifter or cam follower) : It follows the shape of the cam lobe on the
cam shaft and hence converts angular movement of the cam in to a reciprocating motion. This
is placed slightly eccentric with earn to make the cam wear uniform and is located between
push rod and cam.

(c) Push Rod: This is placed between valve tappet and rocker arm and transmits
reciprocating motion of valve tappet to the rocker arm. Push rods are made of steel and may
be either solid or hollow. Hollow push rod is lighter and results in reduced inertia forces. It
provides a passage for the oil to lubricate the valve actuating mechanism.
 (d)Rocker Arm: It may be solid or hollow and changes (reverse) the upward
motion of the push rod to down ward motion of the valve and vice versa. It is made of steel
(forged or stamped) or iron ( cast).
1.29 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to
1. Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication).
2. Wet sump system.
a)Splash lubrication b)Pressure feed lubrication

3.Dry sump system

1.Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed with
the petrol. i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less, it causes
damage to the engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive carbon deposits in
thecylinder head and produces poor emissions. This method is used in scooter and motor
cycles [two-stroke engines].

2.Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that
serves as the oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the
cylinders and bearings flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is pumped
and recirculated to the engine lubricating system. The wet sump system is again classified
into a) Splash lubrication system.

a) Pressure feed system.

b) Semi pressure feed system.
a)Splash Lubrication System: It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was used in
earlymotor cycles. The lower end of the connecting rod consists of a scoop like structure as
in the figure. The oil is stored in the oil trough (being delivered from the crank case oil
sump).
When the engine runs, the connecting rod oscillates and the scoop takes the oil from oil
trough and splashes on to the cylinder walls each time when it passes through BDC
position. This lubricates engine walls, gudgeon pin, main crank shaft bearings, big end
bearings etc. The oil dripping from the cylinder walls, collects in the tank where it is
cooled by air flow.
 Fig. Splash lubrication system

b)Pressure Feed System: This system is most commonly used in modern car engines. In
thissystem, the oil forces oil under pressure to the main bearings, connecting rod and cam
shaft bearings and also to the timing gears. Drilled assuages in the crank shaft carry oil
from the main bearings to the connecting rod bearings. The cylinder walls! piston pin,
piston and piston rings are lubricated by oil spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft.
For the cam shaft and timing gears, there is a separate oil line from the main oil gallery.
The basic components of the wet lubricating system are pump, strainer, pressure regulator,
filter etc.

ig. Full pressure feed lubrication system

3.Dry Sump Lubricating System: In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is
 called scavenging pump and is located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil from
this pump is carne to an external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s the oil
through filter to the cylinder and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and bearings in to
the sump is again removed by scavenging pump (sump pump), which supplies oil to the
reservoir. As the capacity of sump pump is greater than oil pump, oil will not be
accumulated in the engine base. The oil pump draws oil from the supply tank and delivers
it under pressure to the engine bearings and oil pressure of 400-500 kpa is maintained in
main and big end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100 kpa is maintained in timing gears
and cam shaft bearings etc. This system is suitable for lubricating sport cars, jeeps etc.

Fig. Dry sump lubrication system

Types of oil pumps : There are two basic types of oil pumps.

1.Twin gear pumps: These are mounted inside the oil pan on the bottom of the engine and use
a pair of intermeshing gears to pump oil. One gear is driven by a shaft and the second gear is
driven by the first gear. The pump is usually driven by a shaft that connects to the crankshaft,
camshaft or distributor shaft. Thus, the pump operates at half engine rpm . Pump gears rotate
in opposing directions. This captures oil between the gear teeth and transports it from the
pickup tube entrance to the pump outlet around the outside of each gear. The oil cannot flow
rearward to the intake due to the tight clearances between the gears.
Fig: Twin gear pumps
2Rotor Pumps :
An inner gear revolves within an outer rotor in rotor pumps. In comparison to
the outer rotor, the inner gear has one fewer lobe. The outer rotor is likewise
placed slightly off-center to the inner gear, causing the outer rotor to spin at
around 80% of the inner gear’s speed. This causes a bellows-like pumping
motion, which sucks oil from the input port and pushes it to the output port.
Pumping efficiency necessitates precise tolerances. Pumps of this sort can also
be found in the crankcase.

Oil filter :An oil filter is used to remove the dust particles/contaminants from
the oil before it is feeding to all the parts of the engine.
Types of Oil Filters:
There are 3 types of Oil Filters, and those are:
1. Cartridge Type Oil Filter
2. Edge Type Oil Filter
3. Centrifugal Type Oil Filter

1.Cartridge Type Oil Filter:

Cartridge type oil filter consists of filtering elements which are placed in the
metallic casing for removing the impurities present in the lubricating oil and is
mostly used in automobile engines.
Currently, filter elements with fine pores have been employed which has made
it practicable to stop or arrest the particles of size down to within the region of 5
microns.

In the filter shown in the figure, the oil enters the filter at the top of the casing and passes
through the filter elements as shown by the arrow marks.
The pure oil has to be passed through the porous metallic tube from where the oil goes to the
outlet for circulation. A drain plug is also provided as shown in the figure:
2.Edge Type Oil Filter:
Edge type oil filter is also called a stack type Oil filter.
In this oil filter, the oil is made to pass through several closely spaced discs which are
mounted on the center spindle as well as the square rod alternately as shown in the figure .
The clearance or gap between two successive discs is of few microns only.
The oil is allowed to pass through these spaces between the discs and due to the small spaces
involved in between the discs, the impurities are left on the disk periphery itself from where
they are removed periodically using operating the central knob.
This may be connected to the clutch system and operated periodically using clutch action or it
can be done either manually also.
Centrifugal Type Oil filter:
In this Oil Filter, the impure oil from the engine enters the hollow Central spindle having holes around
its periphery as shown in the figure. The impure/dirty oil comes out of these holes and fills the rotor
casing after which it passes through the tubes A at the ends of which Jets are attached. The oil under
pressure passes through these jets and due to the reaction of which, it gives motion to the rotor casing
in the opposite direction so that it starts rotating. The oil impinges on the outer stationary casing under
heavy pressures where the impurities are retained there itself and cleaned oil falls below from where it
is to be passed to other parts of the engine.
Depending upon the oil pressure circulating the oil, the working speed of the rotor is usually between
2000 rpm and 7000 rpm.

CRANK CASE VENTILATION : The products of combustion contain mainly nitrogen,

water and carbon dioxide, sulphuric acid (due to sulphur content in the fuel)It is quite
possible that the product of combustion may leak through the piston rings into the crankcase
oil by slipping past the piston rings. Thus the lubricating oil in the crankcase becomes dilute
when mixed with water and gasoline which leak past the piston rings. The acid causes
corrosion of the crankcase metals as water does.If either or both are allowed to enter and
remain in the crankcase, the crankcase ventilation removes all these unwanted particles from
the crankcase, which leak past the piston rings.-It prevents the lubricating oil from becoming
dilute and corrosion of crankcase metals due to acid .
positive crankcase ventilation system:
In a positive crankcase ventilation, the crankcase vapor are returned to the engine through the
intake manifold, instead of being exhausted into the atmosphere.-The crankcase outlet tube is
connected to the manifold just beneath the carburettor so that the vapors are drawn into the
intake manifold and utilized into the cylinder during the operation