UNIT 5 UNDERWATER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Underwater Communication: IEEE Standards, Modulation techniques, Frequency

Spectrum, Modulation Techniques - Underwater Channel models for wireless
Communication – Role of Digital signal processing in Underwater Communication-
Underwater localization

INTRODUCTION :

Earth is largely covered by water. This is largely unexplored area and recently
humans are showing interest towards exploring it Underwater communication.

How does underwater wireless communication work?

In underwater wireless communication, the transmitter sends the data (sonar
signal) to the surface along with a small disturbance (vibration of 1 or 0 sec). Then
the receiver at the surface captures the data with disturbance and decodes them.
This is the process of data sharing from one node to another. And, one more thing is
UWCNs comprises autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and underwater
sensors for communication which involves the techniques of data sensing,
monitoring, and coordinating. Basically, UWSN has two classifications of the network
as deep WSN and shallow WSN.

 Deep WSN – support only acoustic waves

 Shallow WSN – support both electromagnetic and acoustic waves

As shown in Figure, UWSNs are composed of several components: onshore sink,

surface buoy, underwater sink node, and underwater sensor nodes. Moreover,
satellite, vessel, and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) can be used to
expand the sense and communication range. Underwater sensor nodes monitor
physical or environmental conditions, such as pressure, sound, temperature, etc.
and cooperatively transmit data to the underwater sink node. The data are
transmitted to a surface buoy via wired link, and finally received at an onshore sink
or surface sink via radio communication. There are three different architectures for
UWSNs. Static two-dimensional architecture: all the nodes are anchored to the
ocean floor. The underwater sink node collects data from sensor nodes by the
horizontal transceiver. Then, it relays data to surface buoy by the vertical transceiver
or wired link. Static three-dimensional architecture: underwater nodes are anchored
to the seabed and fitted out with floating buoys. The buoy pays the sensor towards
the water surface. The lengths of the cables are different for the required depth of
sensor nodes. Three-dimensional architecture with AUVs: as discussed above,
AUVs can be used to expand the sense and communication range. The AUVs could
be considered as super nodes, which have more energy, can move independently,
and could be routers between fixed sensors, managers for network reconfiguration,
or even a normal sensor.

In UWSNs, to prolong the lifetime of whole network, cluster-based network

architecture is widely used. A cluster-head (CH) node is elected to be the sink-node
of the cluster, which aggregates and relays packets intra-cluster and inter-cluster.
Hence, the energy consumption of CH is greater than member nodes. Sensor nodes
are elected to be the CH in turn to balance the energy consumption and further
prolong the lifetime of the whole network. The election protocol may be based on the
residual energy, the best energy consumption, or the optimal number of CHs.

Existing research on UWSNs is mainly focused on communication, self-

organization, processing capabilities, cover ability, connectivity, adaptability and low
energy consumption. Unfortunately, this existing research is constrained in terms of
countering security threats in UWSNs because the resources are much more
constrained while the security situation is more server-based due to the
particularities and networking environments.
 Different Ranges and Parameters of Underwater Wireless Communication

Operational Communication Data Transfer Supported Bandwidth

Environs Coverage Rate
Short Range up to 1 km Above 100 Kb/s from 100 KHz to 500 KHz

Medium Range from 1 km to 10 km up to 50 Kb/s from 10 KHz to 100 KHz

Long Range from 10 km to 2000 km up to 10 Kb/s from 500 Hz to 10 KHz

Different communication types for UWSNs:

In UWSNs, there exist two primary types of communication where one is wired
and the other is wireless. Initially wired underwater communication is established but
it is very expensive and challenging for real implementation. To overcome these
problems, wireless communication is introduced. Compare to wired
communication, it receives tremendous recognition from research and industrial
sectors, and still, it is referred to as ever-growing technology.
 Initially, Magneto-Inductive (MI) and Radio Frequency (RF) communication
are largely employed due to its greater data rate in the near field
communication
 In the case of long-distance communication, acoustic communication is
more effective than others.
 In the case of constrained line-of-sight positioning, optical communication
will yield good performance

Different Communication Types of Underwater Communication Characteristics

Radio Magnetic
Parameter Optical Acoustic Induction
Frequency
Data Transfer
< 1 Gbps < 100 Kbps < 10 Mbps Mbps
Rates
Radio /
Wave Types Light Sound Magnetic
Electromagnetic
14
From 10 Hz to
Frequency 15 100 KHz MHz MHz
10 Hz
Antenna Size 0.1 m 0.1 m 0.5 m Loop antenna

Transmission Area 1 m to 100 m 50 m to 10 Km 1 m to 100 m 20 m to 100 m

Communication
10 m to 100 m Km <10 m 10 m to 100 m
Area
Broadcasting 8 3 8 8
2.2 – 3 x10 m/s 1.5×10 m/s 3 x10 m/s 3 x10 m/s
Speed
Optical Features – Support low (energy usage and latency) and high data rate. As
well, it enables line of sight transmission, light scattering and ambient noise as
channel dependency

Acoustic Features – Support long distance data transmission. And, it includes

doppler effect, salinity, temperature/pressure and environ noise as channel
dependency

Radio Frequency - Features – Non-line-of-sight which not adjusted by deep water,

noise and turbidity. Additionally, it makes conductivity and multipath as channel
dependency

Magnetic Induction - Broadcasting Speed –Features – Support minimum path

loss and moderate data rate and cost which not altered by multiple path fading.
Further, it makes conductivity as channel dependency

Autonomous underwater systems: Network Topologies

Figure: Centralized network topology.

 Nodes communicate via a central station (cellular network paradigm).

 Channel must be shared—regulation of multiple access.
 Central stations are connected through a separate infrastructure (cable on the
bottom, radio on the surface).

Figure: Decentralized network topology.

  Nodes communicate through neighbours (ad hoc network paradigm).
 Messages must be relayed to reach destination—regulation of channel
access.
 There may be an end node to gateway. Nodes may form clusters.

Depending on the application, future underwater networks are likely to evolve in two
directions:centralized and decentralized networks.
In a centralized network, nodes communicate through a base station that covers one
cell. Larger area is covered by more cells whose base stations are connected over a
separatecommunications infrastructure. The base stations can be on the surface and
communicate using radio links, as shown in the figure, or they can be on the bottom,
connected by a cable. Alternatively, the base station can be movable as well.
In a decentralized network, nodes communicate via peer-to-peer, multi-hop
transmission ofdata packets. The packets must be relayed to reach the destination,
and there may be a designatedend node to a surface gateway. Nodes may also form
clusters for a more efficient utilization ofcommunication channel.

Underwater Sensor Network Architecture:

Architectures can be classified in various ways. One classification discriminates

between static, semi mobile and mobile architectures. Another popular UWSN
classification method is to divide UWSNs into two dimensional (cover ocean floor)
and three-dimensional (includes depth as a dimension). UWSN can also be single-
hop, multi-hop, or hybrid (single-hop individual sensors, multi-hop clusters).
Architectures can be grouped into short-tem, time-critical applications, and long-
term, non-time-critical applications. RF, optical, and acoustic wave based
architectures are another way to look at the available UWSNs.
Figure shows the most common UWSN architecture. The individual nodes are
anchored at the ocean floor. They are usually smaller in size, battery operated, and
they mostly transmit data via acoustic modems. The cluster heads are also anchored
to the ocean floor. In addition to having acoustic modems. Cluster heads are
equipped with two acoustic transceivers, namely a vertical and a horizontal
transceiver. The horizontal transceiver is used by the cluster head or uwsink to
communicate with the sensor nodes in order to send commands and configuration
data to the sensors. This communication will happening between underwater sinker
cluster head to sensors. Collect monitored data. This communication will happening
between sensors to cluster head or sink. Cluster heads communicate via horizontal
acoustic modes with all other individual nodes within the cluster. The data transfer
from node to cluster head can be single-hop (each node communicated to the cluster
head directly or multi-hop. In case of multi-hop paths, as in terrestrial sensor
networks, the data produced by a source sensor is relayed by intermediate sensors
until it reaches the uw-sink. This results in energy savings and increased network
capacity but increases the complexity of the routing functionality as well. The vertical
transreceiver is used by the uw-sinks to relay data to a surface station. Vertical
transceivers must be long range transceivers for deep water applications as the
ocean can be as deep as 10 km. The surface station is equipped with an acoustic
transceiver that is able to handle multiple parallel communications with the deployed
uw-sinks. Finally base or surface station will send the sensed data to on-shore base
station via RF signal.

Fig : 2D architecture of underwater sensor network

Unlike TWSNs, the hardware of the cluster head node is different from all other
nodes, because it has additional functionalities such as a direct communication link
with the ocean surface. Therefore, a popular TWSN’s cluster head switching feature
(which increases the overall network lifetime by efficiently distributing the power
consumption among nodes) cannot be utilized in UWSNs. Also, the cluster head is
potentially the most security-vulnerable component in UWSNs military applications,
because it is a single point of failure node. Following figure shows an alternative 3D
UWSN architecture. Three dimensional underwater networks are used to detect and
observe phenomena that cannot be adequately observed by means of ocean bottom
sensor node, i.e., to perform cooperative sampling of 3D ocean environment. In 3D
architecture, sensor node float at different depth in order to observe the given
phenomenon. In this architecture each sensor is anchored to the ocean bottom and
equipped with a floating buoy that can inflated by a pump. The buoy pushes the
sensor towards the ocean surface. The depth of sensor then can be regulated by
adjusting the length of wire that connect the sensor to the anchor, by means of an
electronically controlled engine that reside on sensor.
3D architecture can have all nodes directly communicate to the surface base or can
have only cluster heads communicate directly to the base. In the former case, all
nodes are of the same type, but communication might be more energy intensive than
that of the cluster head approach. The cluster head approach requires only the
cluster head to carry a long-range communication modem. On the other hand, the
clustered approach is vulnerable to single point of failure. Military applications are
extremely sensitive to single point of failure hardware components.
 Fig: 3D Architecture of underwater sensor network

Since in 3D underwater networks there is no notion of uw-sink, sensors should be

able to relay information to the surface station via multi hop paths. Thus, network
devices should coordinate their depths such a way that the network topology always
connected, i.e., at least one path from every sensor to the surface station always
exists.

Attacks on UWCNs and counter measures:

JAMMING:
A jamming attack consists of interfering with the physical channel by putting
up carriers on the frequencies neighbour nodes use to communicate. Since
underwater acoustic frequency bands are narrow, UWCNs are vulnerable to
narrowband jamming. Localization is affected by the replay attack when the attacker
jams the communication between a sender and a receiver, and later replays the
same message with stale information posing as the sender. Spread spectrum is the
most common defence against jamming. Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) in underwater
communications are drawing attention for their good performance under noise and
multipath interference. These schemes are resistant to interference from attackers,
although not infallible. An attacker can jam a wide band of the spectrum or follow the
precise hopping sequence when an FHSS scheme is used. A high-power wideband
jamming signal can be used to attack a DSSS scheme.
Underwater sensors under a jamming attack should try to preserve their power.
When jamming is continuous, sensors can switch to sleep mode and wake up
periodically to check if the attack is over. When jamming is intermittent, sensors can
buffer data packets and only send high-power high priority messages to report the
attack when a gap in jamming occurs. In ground based sensor networks, other
sensors located along the edge of the area under normal background noise and
report intrusion to outside nodes. That will cause any further traffic to be rerouted
around the jammed region. However, this solution cannot be applied to UWCNs,
since nodes underwater are usually sparsely deployed, which means there would not
be enough sensors.

WORMHOLE ATTACK:

A wormhole is an out-of-band connection created by the adversary between

two physical locations in a network with lower delay and higher bandwidth than
ordinary connections. This connection uses fast radio (above the sea surface) or
wired links to significantly decrease the propagation delay. In a wormhole attack the
malicious node transfers some selected packets received at one end of the
wormhole to the other end using the out-of-band connection, and reinjects them into
the network. The effect is that false neighbour relationships are created, because
two nodes out of each other’s range can erroneously conclude that they are in
proximity of one another due to the wormhole’s presence. This attack is devastating.
Routing protocols choose routes that contain wormhole links because they appear to
be shorter; thus, the adversary can monitor network traffic and delay or drop packets
sent through the wormhole. Localization protocols can also be affected by these
attacks when malicious nodes claim wrong locations and mislead other nodes. To
delimit the jammed region accurately and reroute traffic around it. Another solution
proposedfor ground-based sensor networks against jamming is to use alternative
technologies forcommunication such as infrared or optical. However, this solution
cannot be applied either, sinceoptical and infrared waves are severely attenuated
under water.

Fig: Underwater network with a wormhole link

One proposed method for wormhole detection in ground-based sensor networks

consists of estimating the real physical distance between two nodes to check their
neighbour relationship. If the measured distance is longer than the nodes’
communication range, it is assumed that the nodes are connected through a
wormhole. However, accurate distance estimation depends on precise localization
(geographical packet leashes, wormhole detection using position information of
anchors), tight clock synchronization (temporal packet leashes), or use of specific
hardware (directional antennas). In underwater communications accurate localization
and time synchronization are still challenging.
Since a wormhole contracts the virtual layout at certain regions, some nodes far
away appear to be neighbours, and these contradictions can be detected visualizing
the virtual layout. A wormhole indicator variable is defined to compute the distortion
in angles; the distortion in edge lengths is computed as the difference between the
measured distances among neighbouring sensors and the lengths of the
reconstructed connections.

SINKHOLE ATTACK:
In a sinkhole attack, a malicious node attempts to attract traffic from a particular area
toward it; for example, the malicious node can announce a high-quality route.
Geographic routing and authentication of nodes exchanging routing information are
possible defences against this attack, but geographic routing is still an open research
topic in UWCNs.

HELLO FLOOD ATTACK:

A node receiving a HELLO packet from a malicious node may interpret that the
adversary is a neighbour this assumption is false if the adversary uses high power
for transmission. Bidirectional link verification can help protect against this attack,
although it is not accurate due to node mobility and the high propagation delays of
UWCNs. Authentication is also a possible defence.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT SPOOFING:
A malicious node overhearing packets sent to neighbour nodes can use this
information to spoof link layer acknowledgments with the objective of reinforcing a
weak link or a link located in a shadow zone. Shadow zones are formed when the
acoustic rays are bent and sound waves cannot penetrate. They cause high bit error
rates and loss of connectivity. This way, the routing scheme is manipulated. A
solution to this attack would be encryption of all packets sent through the network.

SYBIL ATTACK:
An attacker with multiple identities can pretend to be in many places at once.
Geographic routing protocols are also misled because an adversary with multiple
identities can claim to be in multiple places at once Authentication and position
verification are methods against this attack, although position verification in UWCNs
is problematic due to mobility.
 Fig : Sybil Attack

APPLICATIONS:
 Future applications could enhance myriad industries, ranging from the
offshore oil
 industry to aquaculture to fishing industries, she noted. Additionally, pollution
control, climate recording, ocean monitoring (for prediction of natural
disturbances) and detection of objects on the ocean floor are other areas that
could benefit from enhanced underwater communications.
 Environmental monitoring to gathering of oceanographic data
 Marine archaeology
 Search and rescue missions
 Defence

DISADVANTAGES:
 Battery power is limited and usually batteries cannot be recharged also
because solarenergy cannot be exploited.
 The available bandwidth is severly limited.
  Channel characteristics including long and variable propagation delays
 Multipath and fading problems.
 High bit error rate.

Modulation Techniques in UWC

The commonly used modulation methods in underwater acoustic communication are

MPSK (BPSK, QPSK, and 8PSK) and MQAM.

MPSK is the most commonly used modulation method. Phase shift is based on the
phase as a variable, and the amplitude and the frequency are as a constant signal
modulation. The MPSK signal can be represented by such a set of signals:

where A represents the amplitude, ωc represents the angular frequency, and

phase θm is represented by a uniformly spaced set of phase angles.

where M represents the number of symbols and the phase interval between two
adjacent signals in the modulation signal is 2π/M. For example, the phase spacing of
the four symbols QPSK is π/2 .

The expression of the MQAM signal is somewhat different from that of MPSK. It is
expressed as

where Ai = aicos(φi) and Bi = bi sin(φi) respectively; they modulate two different

carriers in MQAM modulation, in which ai and bi represent two sequences that
need to be sent.

CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

Unlike in the majority of other communication channels, the use of underwater

acoustic resources has not been regulated yet by standards. The available
bandwidth and transmission range in underwater acoustic channels depend on the
signal-to-noise ratio which is primarily determined by transmission loss and noise
level. System performance and its information throughput depend on the signal
distortions caused by reverberation, or multipath propagation. Channel
characteristics are time-varying and depend on the system location.

Range and Bandwidth

Transmission loss is caused by energy spreading and sound absorption. While the
energy spreading loss depends only on the propagation distance, the absorption loss
increases not only with range but also with frequency, thus setting the limit on the
available bandwidth. In addition to this nominal transmission loss, the received signal
level is influenced by the spatial variability of the underwater acoustic channel, such
as the formation of shadow zones. Transmission loss at a particular location can be
predicted by many of the propagation modeling techniques with various degrees of
accuracy. Spatial dependence of transmission loss imposes particularly severe
problems for communication with moving sources or receivers.

Noise observed in the ocean consists of man-made noise and ambient noise. In
deep ocean, ambient noise dominates, while near shores and in the presence of
shipping activity, man-made noise significantly increases the noise level. Most of the
ambient noise sources can be described as having a continuous spectrum and
Gaussian statistics. As a first approximation, the ambient noise power spectral
density is assumed to decay at 20 dB/decade, both in shallow and deep water, over
frequencies of interest to communication systems design.

Frequency-dependent transmission loss and noise determine the relationship

between the available range, bandwidth and SNR at the receiver input. This
dependence is illustrated in Figure which shows the frequency dependent term of
SNR for several transmission ranges. (The SNR is evaluated assuming spherical
spreading, absorption according to Thorp and a 20 dB/dec decay of the noise power
spectral density) Evidently, this dependence influences the choice of a carrier
frequency for the desired transmission range. In addition, it determines the
relationship between the available range and frequency band. As a result,
underwater acoustic communication links can be classified according to range. For a
long-range system, operating over 10-100 km, the bandwidth is limited to few kHz
(for a very long distance on the order of 1000 km, the available bandwidth falls below
a kHz). A medium-range system operating over 1-10 km has a bandwidth on the
order of 10 kHz. A short-range system operates over distances less than a km with
bandwidth in excess of 10 kHz, while only at very short distances below about 100
in, more than a hundred kHz of bandwidth may be available.
Multipath

Within a limited bandwidth, the signal is subject to multipath propagation through a

channel whose characteristics vary with time and are highly dependent on the
location of the transmitter and receiver. In the first place, the multipath spread
depends on the link configuration, which is primarily designated as vertical or
horizontal. While vertical channels exhibit little time-dispersion, horizontal channels
may have extremely long multipath spreads. In a digital communication system
which uses a single carrier, multipath propagation causes intersymbol interference
(ISI), and an important figure of merit is multipath spread in terms of symbol
intervals.

While typical multipath spreads in the commonly used radio channels are on the
order of several symbol intervals, in the horizontal underwater acoustic channels
they increase to several tens, or a hundred of symbol intervals for moderate to high
data rates. For example, a commonly encountered multipath spread of 10ms in a
medium-range shallow water channel causes the ISI to extend over 100 symbols if
the system is operating at a rate of 10 kilosymbols per second (ksps).

The mechanisms of multipath formation in the ocean are different in deep and
shallow water, and also depend on the frequency and range of transmission.
Depending on the system location, there are several typical ways of multipath
propagation, determined mostly by the water depth. The definition of shallow and
deep water is not a strict one, but usually implies the region of continental shelves,
with depth less than about 100 m, and the region past the continental shelves,
respectively. One mechanism of multipath formation is by reflections off the bottom,
surface and any objects in the water, and this mechanism prevails in shallow water
in addition to a possible direct path. Another mechanism, prevalent in deep water, is
by ray bending which occurs because the rays of sound tend to reach regions of
lower propagation speed. In this way, the sound channel may form by repeated
bending of the rays toward the location where sound speed reaches its minimum,
called the axis of the deep sound channel. Since there is no loss due to reflections,
sound can travel in this way over several thousands of kilometers. Alternatively, the
rays bending upwards in deep water may reach the surface focusing in one point
where they are reflected, and the process is repeated periodically. The region
between two focusing points on the surface is called a convergence zone, and its
typical length is 60 -100 km.

The geometry of multipath propagation and its spatial dependence are important for
communication systems which use array processing to sup-press multipath. The
design of such systems is often ac-companied by the use of a propagation model for
predicting the angular distribution of multipath arrivals. Ray theory and the theory of
normal modes provide basis for such propagation modeling.

Time- Variation

Associated with each of the deterministic propagation paths (macro-multipaths),

which can be modeled accurately, are random signal fluctuations (micro-multipath),
which account for the time-variability of the channel response. Some of the random
fluctuations can be modeled statistically. These fluctuations include surface
scattering due to waves, which is the most important contributor to the overall time
variability of the shallow water channel. In deep water, internal waves additionally
contribute to the time-variation of the signal propagating along each of deterministic
paths. Surface height displacement can be well modeled as a zero-mean Gaussian
random variable, whose power spectrum is completely characterized by the wind
speed. Motion of the reflection point results in the Doppler spreading of the surface-
reflected signals. Highest Doppler spreads, with values on the order of 10 Hz, are
most likely to be found in short and medium range links, which use relatively high
frequencies. Note that this effect is present in the channel regardless of the system's
mobility. Statistical channel modeling has significance for communication system
design and analysis by simulation. While experimental model-fitting results are
limited, short and medium-range channels are often modeled as Rayleigh fading
channels. The deep water channel has also been modeled as a Rayleigh fading
channel; however, the available measurements are scarce, often making channel
modeling a controversial issue.
Role of Digital signal processing in Underwater Communication:

The VERTLINK surface and bottom units are designed around the Analog Devices
2101 Fixed-point DSP chips. Fixed-point, rather than floating-point units, are used
because they require less power and are less expensive. These two factors are
important in underwater communication systems, because they are battery powered
and are often disposable or difficult to retrieve. Although floating-point processors
offer a large numerical dynamic range, this is unnecessary in the application
described here as in most underwater applications. The layout of the DSPs within
the surface and bottom units is illustrated in Figure

Essentially, the surface and bottom units are identical. The only exception is that the
2"d DSP on the surface unit communicates with a personal computer, either directly
or via a radio link. Both units contain two DSPs. These realize the modulation and
demodulation of the data and commands and all data are transferred through the
DSP's using their serial ports (sport 0 and sport l).
The sampling of the analogue signal at the input of the analogue-to-digital converter
is controlled by the first processor using the internal timer. This is done using its
internal timer, which generates interrupts after a pre-defined number of processor
cycles. The sampling frequency is limited by the speed at which the processor
operates. The maximum sampling frequency that can be achieved is equal to one
over the sampling period, T, which can be found by determining the number of
operations executed by the processor for each sample multiplied by the processor
cycle, Tcp. T= n Tcp .
For each interrupt the processor reads the data sample at the output of the
analogue-to-digital converter and starts the next data sample conversion. The
analogue-to-digital converter is uni-polar and generates an output between 0 and 1.
This signal is made bi-polar by subtracting 0.5 and then scaling up by 2. This gives a
dynamic range from -1 to +I.
In the 1'' DSP each sample is multiplied by local in-phase and quadrature (sine and
cosine) values. The result of these operations are filtered using Finite Impulse
Response (FIR) digital filters to produce the in-phase (I) and the quadrature (Q).
phase components. To achieve optimum performance the VERTLINK system is
designed to work at a number of different frequencies [3]. The choice of frequency
depends on the operation depth. The FIR parameters can be modified to achieve the
required pass-band boundaries and stop-band attenuation. For example, the filter
characteristics for a 50kHz carrier are given in Table :
Table : FIR parameters for 50kHz – carrier operation at 10kbps symbol rate

Sampling Frequency Fs 200 KHz

Cut off Frequency Fc 10 KHz
Stop band Frequency Fst 70 KHz
Pass band attenuation αp 0.5 dB
Minimum stop band attenuation αst 35 dB
Filter order (Number of Taps) N 7

The order of the digital filter determines the number of operations needed to
implement the filter (the number of processor cycles needed to implement an FIR
filter is equal to the order of that filter plus six processor cycles). The samples at the
output of these filters are sent to the second processor using the serial ports. All the
programs running on the DSPs are interrupt driven, as follows:
1. The start interrupt is used to boot up the processor.
2. The IRQ2 interrupt generated externally by the hardware.
3. The sport interrupts (up to 4), include input and output interrupts for each
sport. These generate interrupts after receiving or transmitting data.
Depending on the configuration of the serial ports interrupts can be generated
after a single word (from 3 to 16 bits) or after buffer of data has been
 transmitted or received (using the autobuffering capability of the processor).
4. The timer interrupt is generated by the internal timer after a number of
processor cycles.
5. Depending on the configuration of the DSP's control registers the second
serial port (sport 1) can be configured as a proper serial port or as two
additional external interrupts (IRQI, IRQ2).

STEPS FOR LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUE

A. Range
Measurement Distance is determined by each ordinary node from each
reference node which is in its communication range of ordinary node. Received
Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI): The received signal strength is measured for
determining the distance of each ordinary node with the reference node and it is
compared signal attenuation model which is dependent on the range. When the
multipath and shadow fading effect exists it is very tough to achieve accuracy in
ranging. The path loss is time varying in the underwater acoustic channel and
energy fading is resulted due to the multipath effects. So the RSSI based
method for localization is not a good one.
Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA): Time difference of two transmission mediums
is used in TDOA method for calculating object’s distance which uses the
transmission method of radio transmission and acoustic transmission. The
transmitter’s distance can be determined using two received signals. This is not
suitable for location in underwater as the radio signal is not able to propagate
through the water. The localization technique uses the time difference of arrival
between beacons and all reference nodes. Time of Arrival (TOA)[1]: The
relationship between various parameters like transmission time, distance, speed
are used for ranging in this method. limitations faced in RSSI and TDOA based
approaches, this method is widely used the range-based localization. This
method requires the time synchronization among network nodes.
B. Location Estimation
The position is estimated by each ordinary node using the intersection various
circles centered at each reference node which have been radius based on the
range measurements.
C. Calibration:
The estimated location is refined using the measurements obtained at various
iteration, error models of measurement, models of mobility, etc.

TECHNIQUES OF LOCALIZATION

There have been many proposals to localize UWSNs but some of the methods excel
in specific ways. Some of the technique of localization are: A. Localization of Multi-
AUV in Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network. This method includes the use of multi-
autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs).In this approach, the position and time is
broadcasted by each AUV which are similar to global satellite navigation satellite.
The message is received by the nodes which is in the range of its communication
and the range differences are detected between sensor nodes and four AUVs. And
after that the position is calculated using trilateration method. Multi-AUV Localization
Scheme consists of two phases: There is time synchronization among AUVs and
from that AUVs the messages are received. It includes the detection of difference
between various arrival time of signal between the nodes and the four AUVs and the
difference of ranges are calculated. Phase 1: Using trilateration the nodes calculates
their position using the position of AUVs and their range differences. The four AUVs
exist, their locations are known. Each AUV consist of the acoustic transmitter which
has been a fixed communication range. Every AUV runs on network and at every t
sec, it broadcasts and that times be tA, tB, tC, tD. The message received by the
target node at t’A, t’B, t’C, t’D and time from A to T is Δ ti = t’i – ti . Where i = {A, B,
C, D}.
A message containing location information is broadcasted by the AUV node
periodically. When an unusual event is detected by the Target node, it accepts the
broadcast message. The format of the broadcast packet is as shown in below figure.

Node ID Latitude, Longitude Time of transmission

Figure. Frame format of Broadcast Packet

For localizing the A-node the data available from the S-node are geographic
coordinates, TOA, time of transmission, depth measurements and AOA. When the
S-node receives packet, the location computation phase will start. A-node is an
important node because the computation of the location is dependent on the
successful reception of A-node’s packet. If the packet is not available or is corrupted,
the situation is treated as the fault. S-node will initialize the fault tolerant procedure
and it will determine the corrupted packet. The location is estimated using
Equirectangular Approximation (EA). Compared to other techniques based on
cylindrical projection, it is more efficient in terms of computation. The TOA
measurements are used for calculating the range between A-node and S-node.