POPULATION

ECOLOGY
PRESENTER : ACRON MTHEMBU

LIFE SCIENCES

N OT E S TA K E N F R O M I S R A E L
A D E YA N J U PA C K
POPULATION
ECOLOGY PART 1
PRESENTER : ACRON MTHEMBU

GRADE 11 LIFE SCIENCES

POPULATION ECOLOGY
TERMS
• Population ecology – the part of ecology that focuses on the factors influencing the population
size, growth rate, growth forms and distribution of individuals inside a population.

• Species – group of organisms with similar characteristics, which produce fertile offspring.

• Population – group of the same species that are found in an area at a time.

• Community – group of populations occurring in an area e.g. populations of lion, zebra, giraffe
and rhino in the Kruger National Park.
POPULATION ECOLOGY
TERMS
• Ecosystem – a unit of living organisms interacting with each other as well as with the non -living
factors in area.

• Environment – external factors (living and non-living) surrounding an organism and influencing
its development and survival.

• Habitat – specific environment (home) in which a plant or animal species normally occurs.
POPULATION SIZE

• Population size is the total number of individuals in a

population.
• Population density refers to the number of individuals
of a population per unit area e.g. 10 sheep per hectare.
POPULATION PARAMETERS

Four main factors (parameters) influence population size.

• - Natality – the birth rate of a population (normally expressed as the number of live births per
thousand individuals per year).

• - Mortality - the death rate of a population.

• - Immigration – the one-way movement of organisms into an area where they become
established.

• - Emigration – the one-way movement of organisms out of an area to become established.

POPULATION ECOLOGY

• Natality and immigration cause an increase in population size, while mortality and emigration
cause a decrease.

• A population where immigration and emigration do not occur is known as a closed population,
e.g. fish in a dam or animals on an island.

• The only parameters that affect the population size in a closed population are natality and
mortality.
4
PARAMETERS
.
Determining population size
2 TECHNIQUES
Direct techniques – involve the total count of all individuals in the population.

These includes:

• - Census (in a human population)

• - Counting, e.g. large animals in a nature reserve counted with the aid of a helicopter.

• - Aerial photographs of groups of animals, e.g. a penguin colony.

Determining population size
2 TECHNIQUES
Indirect techniques – involve the counting of only part of the
population. It includes the following:
• - Mark-recapture technique
• - Quadrat technique
Mark-recapture technique
• - A specific area is demarcated.

• - Several individuals are caught, counted and marked (1st sample) and are later released into
the environment. They are allowed to mix with the rest of the population.

• - Another group of individuals is caught and counted (2nd sample).

• - The number of marked individuals in the 2nd sample (marked during the 1st sampling) are
counted.

• - The data is used to determine the estimated size of the population using the following
formula:
Mark-recapture technique

• P = estimated population size

• m = total number of animals captured and marked in sample 1

• s = total number of animals captured in sample 2

• t = number of marked individuals in sample 2

EXAMP
LE
.
Mark-recapture technique
To make this technique more accurate (improve), repeat the sampling a few times and calculate an
average population size. This technique is only valid under the following conditions:

• - The marking method should not injure or damage the organism.

• - The marks should be clearly visible for the duration of the investigation.

• - The marking method should not affect the movement or behaviour of the organism.

• - Marked organisms should be allowed enough time to mix with the rest of the population
before the next sample is taken.

• - The population must be closed, so no immigration or emigration takes place.

• - The period between the two samplings should be sufficiently brief, so that no births or deaths
occur.
Quadrat technique
• - A square frame of known size is used.

• - An area where organisms must be counted is demarcated and the surface area determined.

• - The quadrat is placed on the ground in the demarcated area and the organisms concerned are
counted inside the square frame.

• - This process is repeated a few times in different areas of the demarcated area by placing the
quadrat randomly on the ground. Through random sampling, each member of the population
has an equal and independent chance of being included.

• - The total number of individuals in the population is determined using the following formula:
Quadrat technique
Quadrat technique

The reliability of this technique depends on the following:

• - The exact number of organisms in each quadrat must be known.

• - The surface area of the quadrat must be known.

• - The surface area of the demarcated area must be known.

• - The quadrat must be placed randomly in the demarcated area.

POPULATION GROWTH
FORMS
It is the distinctive growth patterns of a population. Two basic growth forms are distinguished:

• - Geometric J-shaped growth form

• - Logistic or S-shaped (sigmoid) growth form

Geometric (J-
Shaped) Growth
Form
• Unlimited resources such as food,
water, space and no predators can
make a population reach its full
reproductive potential. These ideal
environmental conditions result in
the maximum possible growth rate
and population figures increase
rapidly.
Geometric (J-Shaped) Growth
Form
Characteristics of geometric growth form

• - A distinctive J-shape.

• - Increase in number is slow at the beginning, as there are few individuals. In time there is a
sharp increase in individuals due to optimum environmental conditions.

• - A sudden standstill often occurs. This occurs when conditions become unfavourable, e.g.
shortage of food, unfavourable temperature or poisoning.

• - Once conditions are favourable again, the growth pattern can be repeated.
Geometric
(J-Shaped)
Growth
Form
LIMITING FACTORS

• Factors that prevent unlimited growth in a population. They play a huge role in the regulation of
population size.
LIMITING FACTORS
Limiting factors can be classified as:
- Density dependent factors – factors that take effect when population size or density
increases. The larger the population, the greater the effect of these factors. Examples
include shortage of food and water, shortage of living space, shortage of shelter,
predation, spread of diseases and parasites, accumulation of toxins.
- Density independent factors – factors that limit the size of a population regardless of
the size or density of the population. Examples include extreme changes in temperature,
natural disasters (floods, drought, fire, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and
hurricanes).

Together, they are called environmental resistance. When the numbers a population
increase, the environmental resistance increases.
Logistic (S-shaped) Growth Form

• Limiting factors (environmental resistance) can transform the J-shaped

curve into an S-shaped curve.
• An S-shaped growth form occurs when a young population consisting of
only a few individuals is in an area with sufficient food, water, space and
little predation.
Logistic (S-
shaped) Growth
Form
Four distinctive phases can be
distinguished on the logistic (S-
shaped) curve:

• - Lag phase

• - Geometric/ exponential/
accelerating growth phase

• - Decelerating growth phase

• - Equilibrium/stationary phase.
Lag phase
The population grows slowly at the beginning. This is because;
• a. population acclimatises and adapt to the environment.
• b. individuals must become sexually mature.
• c. individuals seek partners for mating.
• d. it takes time before new offspring are produced (gestation period or
incubation).
Logistic (S-shaped) Growth Form
• Geometric/exponential/accelerating growth phase

The population grows rapidly and reaches its maximum growth rate. There is very little or no
environmental resistance at this stage. Natality is higher than mortality.

• Decelerating growth phase

Growth rate decreases due to an increase in environmental resistance. Natality is still higher than
mortality. As the population grows, the available resources decrease, and competition increases.

Equilibrium/stationary phase

The population number now reaches the carrying capacity of the environment and stabilise
around this value. Natality and mortality are approximately equal during this phase.
 NOTE
C A R R Y I N G C A PA C I T Y I S T H E M A X I M U M N U M B E R O F I N D I V I D U A L S
T H AT A S P E C I F I C E N V I R O N M E N T C A N S U S TA I N .
REGULATION OF
POPULATION
• Once a population reaches its maximum size in a given environment, the numbers will not
remain constant, but fluctuate within narrow boundaries due to changes in environmental
resistance.

• If the population numbers increase beyond the carrying capacity, the environmental resistance
will increase and result in a decrease in numbers.

• If the population numbers decrease below the carrying capacity, the environmental resistance
decrease, and the population numbers will increase.

• A stable population is a population where the numbers fluctuate around the carrying capacity.
.
• .
.
• When population numbers far
exceed the carrying capacity, the
habitat will most likely be damaged,
leading to a decrease in the carrying
capacity of the environment. This
type of population is called an
unstable population.

• The environment can no longer

sustain the population and the
population numbers will-decrease, it
may even become extinct.
INTERACTION IN THE
ENVIRONMENT
In Grade 10, you learnt about:

• Trophic level – the position an organism or group of organisms occupies in the food chain.

• Producers – green plants that can produce their own food through photosynthesis.

• Consumers – organisms that cannot produce their own food. They depend directly or indirectly
on the producer for their food. They are primary (herbivores and omnivores), secondary
(carnivores, scavenger and omnivores) and tertiary consumers (carnivores).

• Decomposers – they feed on dead organic matter, e.g. bacteria and fungi.
INTERACTION IN THE
ENVIRONMENT
• There is a fine balance in natural environment, where every
individual is involved in a daily struggle for survival. Interaction
between individuals increases their chances of survival and
leads to the successful survival of several species in a
community.
Five types of interaction occur in
communities in the environment:
• - Predation

• - Competition

• - Mutualism

• - Commensalism

• - Parasitism
PREDATION

• This is a feeding interaction where one organism,

the predator, hunts, kills and eats another
organism, the prey.
Predators are well adapted to hunt and catch
their prey and have the following qualities:

• - Agility

• - Great speed

• - Intensified sense of smell

• - Sharp teeth and claws

• - Good camouflage
Prey are adapted to escape from predators.
They have the following qualities:

• - Herding

• - Good camouflage

• - Warning colouration

• - Ability to secrete poisonous substances.

Predator-prey
relationship
• The relationship between predator and prey
causes fluctuations in both predator and prey
numbers. Predation therefore helps to control the
sizes of both populations.

• Predators control the prey numbers, but at the

same time the number of available preys also
controls the number of predators.

• The higher the prey numbers, the more predation

will occur. The lower the prey numbers, the fewer
predators will survive due to a shortage of food.

• Predation is therefore a density-dependent factor.

Examples of
South African
predators
• Lion (Panthera leo) – Lions have unbelievable
power, agility, sharp teeth, claws and camouflage,
are well-adapted to be successful hunters. Their
only shortcomings are their lack of stamina when
chasing their prey.

• Their prey includes wildebeest, zebra, gemsbok,

kudus, buffalo, giraffe and warthogs.

• Female lions (lioness) are predominantly hunters,

but sometimes a stronger male is needed to help
bring down larger prey such as buffalo.

• Lions usually hunts at night and work as a group

to ambush their prey.
Examples of South African
predators
• Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) – The ability of crocodiles to drift quietly and unseen with
most of their body submerged, together with their high speed over short distances, make them
effective hunters of larger prey.

• The prey is grasped by the powerful jaws, pulled into the water and held underwater until it
drowns.

• Adult crocodiles eat larger vertebrates, such as wildebeest, zebra, warthogs, sheep, goats and
cattle.
POPULATION
ECOLOGY
PART 2
PRESENTER : ACRON
MTHEMBU

GRADE 11 LIFE SCIENCES

COMPETITION
• Each species has a specific role to play in the community.
This role is known as its ecological niche.
• In its specific role, each species needs a particular set of
environmental conditions and resources to survive and
reproduce in its habitat.
• The survival of a species therefore depends on how
successfully the organisms use their available resources.
COMPETITION- Competition takes place when
two or more individuals compete for the same limited resources,
such as food, water, space, shelter and mating partners.
There are two types of competition:
• Intraspecific competition: takes place between individuals of the same
species. They live in the same habitat and use the same resources. It is a
very intense type of competition. Example: Two male lions competing to
mate with the same female.
• Interspecific competition: takes place between individuals of different
species. Example: Hyenas and vultures competing for the same food
source.
Competition is a density-
dependent factor.
• As the numbers of population increase and resources become increasingly limited, intraspecific
competition between individuals increases.

• With the increase in population numbers, the ecological niches of the different species may also
overlap more and more, which will in turn increase interspecific competition.

• Competition therefore is a density-dependent factor.

Competitive exclusion

• Two different species that need the same limited resources

cannot occupy the same niche in the same habitat over a long
period. Usually, one species will outcompete the other, which
could result in the emigration (moving out) or even extinction
of the other species.
• This is known as the principle of competitive exclusion.
.
• Two species of Paramecium (aurelia
and caudatum) were both cultivated
under the same laboratory
conditions, together on the same
culture medium.

• After an initial lag phase in both

species, Paramecium aurelia out-
competed Paramecium caudatum
and drove it to extinction.
Resource partitioning
Two species can co-exist in one habitat and use the same resources, but only if they occupy
separate, specialised niches. The resources are used differently, and co-existence is possible.

Types of resource partitioning includes:

- Using the resource at different times, e.g. one species feed during the day and the other at
night.

- Using different parts of the resource, e.g. two different species of ape feed at different heights
in a tree.

- Using the resource in different habitats, e.g. two different species of monkey feed on the same
species of tree, but in different parts of the forest.
Resource
partitioning
• Large herbivores in the African savannah are
adapted to partition their food resource
successfully. Grazers (e.g. wildebeest and zebra)
and browsers (e.g. kudu and giraffe) are not in
competition, as they partition their resources.

• Different plant layers (strata) are adapted to

survive at different intensities of light, and
therefore the resource is divided between the
different layers of plants. Tall trees get the most
sunlight, short trees are exposed to less light,
shrub layer survive in an environment with low
light intensity while shade plants and herbaceous
layer are shade plants.
SYMBIOSIS

• Some organisms of different species live together

in a relationship. This relationship is known as
symbiosis.
Mutualism- A symbiotic
relationship between two
organisms of different
species, where both benefits.

• Bees are attracted by the bright

colours of flowers, where they find
and feed on nectar and pollen.
While the bee is feeding, pollen
grains stick to its body. As the bee
moves to the next flower, the pollen
is transferred, and cross-pollination
takes place.
MUTUALISM
• Honeybird and honey badger both prefer
honey, honeycomb, bees and larvae to any
other food. The honeybird can find the
beehive, but it is difficult for honey badger to
find one. Honey badger has strong, sharp
raking claws to break open the beehive, but
the honeybird is not big or strong enough to
tackle swarms of bees. The honey badger is
led to the food source (beehive) by the
honeybird while the honeybird gets food
because the honey badger breaks open the
beehive and makes the food accessible.
Commensalism A
symbiotic relationship
between two organisms
of different species
where one benefits and
the other is neither
harmed nor benefits.
• The small remora or suckerfish attaches itself to a shark by
means of a sucking disc on top of its head. The suckerfish feeds
on the shark’s leftover scraps of food and also enjoys a great
deal of protection, because the shark scares off the suckerfish’s
predators or even eats them. Consequently, the suckerfish
benefits, while the shark is neither advantaged nor
disadvantaged.
Commensalism A
symbiotic relationship
between two organisms
of different species
where one benefits and
the other is neither
harmed nor benefits.
• Epiphytes are plants that grow on the branches of
trees. Epiphytes use the branch only for support to
obtain maximum light and do not absorb water or
nutrients from the tree. Consequently, the epiphyte
benefits, while the tree is neither advantaged nor
disadvantaged.
Parasitism A symbiotic relationship between two organisms of
different species where one benefits and the other is harmed. The parasite is
the organism that benefits while the host is the organism that is harmed.

Types of parasites

• Ectoparasites live on the external surface of the host’s body. Examples include ticks, lice and
fleas on animals, and plant lice (aphids), dodder and mistletoe on plants.

• Endoparasites live inside the host’s body. Examples include the tapeworm, the bilharzia and
malaria parasites in animals.
Parasitism A symbiotic
relationship between two
organisms of different
species where one benefits
and the other is harmed.
The parasite is the organism
that benefits while the host
is the organism that is
harmed.
.
Parasitism vs Predation

• - Both interactions involve an organism deriving benefit and the host or prey being
disadvantaged.

• - However, parasites differ from predators as they do not kill their hosts deliberately. It is
important to the parasite that the host stays alive. Should the host die, the parasite loses its
habitat and food source.

• - Predators are larger than their prey, while parasites are smaller than their hosts.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION

• Many organisms occur in groups (herds, packs or swarms) or colonies where the animals are
interdependent.

• There is a social organisation evident in these groups or colonies that consists of various
survival strategies.

• These strategies help the animals to survive in their environment.

Herds or swarms
as anti-predation
strategy
• Each individual group member reduces the danger to
itself by staying as close as possible to the centre of the
group – staying as a unit.

• The herd can also scatter in all directions. This confuses

the predator and makes it harder to catch the prey.

• In some cases, a predator can be attacked by a large herd

or flock. Some animals confuse predators with colouring
that makes them difficult to identify.

• For example, a single zebra is clearly visible on a grassy

plain, but in herd of zebra, the stripes merge together and
present the predator with one confusing image.

•
Packs as a • Some predators such as the African wild dog, lions
and hyenas, hunt together in packs – cooperative

successful hunting hunting. It seems that this hunting strategy in a

species consists of learned behaviour rather than
strategy instinctive behaviour, which is passed from one
generation to another.
Sharing of tasks (castes)

• Animals that reach the highest level of social organisation in a community are called eusocial
animals and live together in highly organised colonies. The most well-known examples are social
insects, such as bees, ants, termites and wasps.

• The only mammalian examples are the naked mole rat and the Damaraland mole rat.

• In social insects (e.g. bees), there are different groups or castes that perform specialised
functions in the colonies. These functions include finding food and building nests, (workers),
protecting the nest (soldiers) and caring for the young. A single dominant fertile female, the
queen, is characteristic of these colonies.
COMMUNITY CHANGES OVER
TIME ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• This refers to the sequence of communities, where one community replaces another over time,
resulting in long-term changes in the ecosystem. These changes continue until a complex, stable
ecosystem develops. This is known as the climax or endpoint of succession.

• The first plants and animals that become established in an area are known as pioneers or
pioneer communities. The pioneers change or alter the environment and create conditions that
are favourable for the establishment of more complex organisms. Pioneers are usually replaced
by herbaceous plants, then shrubs and trees.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

• Primary succession It takes place when plants and animals settle for the first time in an area
where there was previously no life. This usually occurs in areas where initially there was no soil
(e.g. bare rocks, sandy surfaces, areas with lava deposits or newly formed dams/lakes.

• Secondary succession This takes place when plants and animals settle in an area disrupted by
human activities, such as ploughed fields or cleared forests, or by natural disasters, such as bush
fires or floods. It takes place much faster than primary succession, because the area where the
pioneer species is settling already has soil, organic nutrients and seeds from previous growth.
ECOLOGICAL • .

SUCCESSION
HUMAN
POPULATION
Population growth

• For the greater part of human history

up to and including the 18th century,
the population growth was very slow,
with the estimated world population
at about 800 million. After 1750, the
world population grew considerably.
At present the world population
stands at 7,08 billion.
HUMAN POPULATION
Population growth
The J-shaped growth (exponential) is mostly due to a decrease in deaths and not an increase in
fertility. Reasons for exponential growth:

• - Improved methods for treating diseases.

• - Development of vaccination against infectious diseases.

• - The cultivation of new disease-resistant food crops, e.g. rice.

• - The use of fertilisers.

• - The use of more effective farming methods.

Fertility rate Fertility rate is the number of births
per 1000 female individuals of child-bearing age (15
– 44 years) per year.
• Developed countries have a lower fertility rate than less-developed countries. This is because
young people are better educated, get married later, use contraceptives or abstain from sex.
Less-developed countries have a much higher population growth rate due to their fertility rate.

• There is a direct correlation between population growth and the level of development. The
lower the level of development, the higher the population growth and vice versa.

• The world population will reach an estimated 9,1 billion in 2050. It is obvious that the most
growth will take place in less-developed countries.
Fertility rate Fertility rate is
the number of births per
1000 female individuals of
child-bearing age (15 – 44
years) per year.
• .
AGE AND
GENDER
DISTRIBUTION
• The age and gender distribution of a
population can be presented
graphically using a population
pyramid.
Age structure distribution refers to the number
of individuals per age group in a specific population.

Three age categories are distinguished:

• - Pre-reproductive group

• - Reproductive group

• - Post-reproductive group
Gender distribution in a particular population refers to
the proportion or ratio of male individuals to female
individuals.

• Classification of population pyramid , There are three types of

population growth, each resulting in differently shaped pyramids.

• - Rapid population growth

• - Stable population growth

• - Negative population growth

Rapid population growth: This
pyramid shows a classic triangular
shape with a wide base and narrow
top. The wide base indicates high
birth rate, and the narrow top a
high death rate.
This type of graph is indicative of population
with;

• - a low standard of living, which usually

occurs in less-developed countries.

• - high natality (birth rate): as a result of

unavailability of contraceptives and a low
level of education.

• - high mortality (death rate)/low life

expectancy occurs due to poor medical
care and nutrition.
Stable population growth: This
pyramid is more square shape. The
base of the pyramid is more or less
the same width as the reproductive
section of the population

• A high standard of living is

characteristic of stable populations
and usually occurs in more developed
countries:
• - low birth rate : occurs as a result of
good family planning, financial
planning and a high level of education.
• - low mortality (higher life expectancy):
occurs as a result of good medical
care, nutrition and education.
Negative population
growth: The base of the
pyramid is narrower than
the reproductive section of
the population.
This indicates;

- Low natality (birth rate)

- - Stable mortality (death rate)

- - Increasing emigration

This type of pyramid is characteristic

of populations in well-developed
countries
HUMAN
POPULATION
GROWTH IN SOUTH
AFRICA
• South Africa’s population size was
51,7 million in October 2011. This
indicates an increase of 15,5% in the
population over the past 10 years
since the previous census in 2001
when 44,8 million people were
counted. The table and graph below
show the human population of South
Africa from 1950 and estimated to
2050.
Previous graph interpretation

• It is evident that from the data that there is a decrease in growth rate after 2010. The decrease in
the rate of population growth can mainly be attributed to large numbers of HIV-related deaths in
South Africa.

• South Africa is moving from a high rate of population growth (characteristic of less -developed
countries), to a more stable rate of population growth (characteristic of more -developed
countries).

• This could possibly be ascribed to the gradual decrease in both the birth rate and the death
rate. Improved education, higher standard of living and better health care also plays a role.
THANK YOU
PRESENTER: ACRON MTHEMBU

GRADE 11 LIFE SCIENCES

POPULATION ECOLOGY

NOTES TAKEN FROM ISRAEL

ADEYANJU PACK