CH1

Plant tissues
A) Meristematic tissues
1. Apical meristematic tissue
- Located at the root tips and shoot tips
2. Lateral meristematic tissue
- Consists of the cork cambium and vascular cambium
B) Permanent tissues
1. Epidermal tissues
❖ Epidermal cells walls have a waxy and waterproof layer called the cuticle which
reduces water loss through transpiration
2. Ground tissues (fills in the space between epidermal tissues and vascular tissues)
- Parenchyma
❖ Simplest living cell and does not undergo differentiation
❖ Are always turgid
❖ Cell walls are thinnest amongst the three ground tissues
❖ Involved in photosynthesis (has chloroplast)
- Collenchyma
❖ Cells walls made of pectin and hemicellulose
❖ Provides mechanical support and elasticity to plants
❖ Cell walls are thicker than parenchyma tissues
- Sclerenchyma
❖ Made up of dead cells when they are matured
❖ Provides support and mechanical strength to matured parts of plants
❖ Cell walls are the thickest amongst the three ground tissues
3. Vascular tissues
- Xylem tissues
❖ Made up of dead cells without cytoplasm
❖ Cell wall of xylem are lignified
❖ Consists of xylem vessels which are elongated and connected from end to
end which enables transport of water and mineral salts from roots to all parts
of the plant
- Phloem tissues
❖ Made up of companion cells and sieve tubes
❖ Sieve tubes do not contain nuclei, ribosome, and vacuoles
❖ Consists of sieve tubes arranged from end to end forming continuous tube
structures which transports sugars from leaves to other parts of the plant

Meristematic Tissues and Growth

1. Cell division zone
- Increases number of cells
2. Cell elongation zone
- Happens through water diffusion via osmosis and nutrients are stored in vacuoles
- Small vacuoles fuse to form a large vacuole through vacuolation
3. Cell differentiation zone
- Cells differentiate to form permanent tissues
- Cells change their shape and structure to specialised cells with specific functions

A) Primary Growth
Occurs in all plants to elongate their stems and roots (takes place at the apical meristems)
B) Secondary Growth
Occurs mainly in eudicots and in some monocots to increase the diameter and circumference of plants
stems and roots

Secondary Growth in Eudicot Stem

1. Secondary growth starts when the vascular cambium actively divides through mitosis
2. Cells in the cambium ring divide inwards to form new xylem and outwards to form new phloem
3. New xylem becomes secondary xylem whereas new phloem becomes secondary phloem
 4. Primary xylem is pushed towards the pith while primary phloem is pushed towards the epidermis
5. Primary xylem forms a strong wooden layer as xylem walls are lignified
6. This provides mechanical support to plants
7. When secondary xylem is compressed, circumference of plant increases and epidermis of plant is
stretched and cracked
8. Cork cambium actively divides to form cortex on the inner side and cork cells on the outer side
9. The cork layer protects the stem from insects and pathogen attacks when epidermis is cracked

Secondary Growth in Eudicot Roots

1. Vascular cambium actively divides to form a complete ring
2. Cells in the cambium ring divides inwards to form secondary xylem and outwards to form secondary
phloem
3. Root becomes thicker
4. Cork cambium actively divides to form cork cells to protect root tissues

Why Do Plants Have Annual Rings?

This is because formation of secondary xylem occurs at different rates according to season. For example, in
spring, the secondary xylem form is thicker and has thinner cell walls. Thus, xylem tissues formed in spring
appear lighter in colour. In summer, secondary xylem formed is thinner and has thicker cell walls. Thus, xylem
tissues formed in summer appear darker in colour.

Necessities for Primary Growth Necessities for Secondary Growth

- Allows maximum elongation of plants to - Provides stability to plants by increasing

absorb sunlight for photosynthesis diameter and circumference of plant stems
and roots

Differences

- Growth occurs at the apical meristem - Occurs at the apical meristem, vascular
- Increases height of a plant’s roots and cambium, and cork cambium
shoots - Increases diameter and circumference of a
plant’s stem and roots

Economic importance of plants that have undergone secondary growth

- Some produces resin and oil
- Boost economic growth via commercialised fruits
- Can be made as decorative items

Growth Curves
1. Annual Plants (watermelon, pumpkin)
- Single sigmoid curve
2. Biennial Plants (cabbage, carrots)
- Two sigmoid curves
3. Perennial Plants (grass, hibiscus)
- A series of small sigmoid curves
CH2

Internal Structure of Leaves

Cuticle A waxy and waterproof layer which covers the upper and lower epidermis and
reduces water loss through transpiration
Is transparent to allow sunlight to pass through it

Upper epidermis Located under the cuticle layer

Is also transparent to allow sunlight to penetrate into the palisade mesophyll cells

Palisade mesophyll cells Are arranged vertically and closely packed to receive maximum sunlight
Are sites for photosynthesis as they contain chloroplast to absorb light energy

Spongy mesophyll cells Are arranged loosely with lots of air space between them to allow efficient
gaseous exchange
Contains less chloroplasts compared to palisade mesophyll cells

Vascular bundle Xylem

- Transports water and mineral salts from roots to all parts of a plant
- Cell walls are lignified to provide support and strength to plant
Phloem
- Transports organic substances produced from photosynthesis from
leaves to other parts of a plant

Opening and Closing of Stomata (influenced by uptake of potassium ions and sucrose concentration)
1. Uptake of potassium ions by guard cells
- Accumulation or elimination of potassium changes solute potential in guard cells
- This decreases or increases water potential in guard cells
- Water is diffused into or out of the guard cells via osmosis
- This condition determines whether the guard cells are turgid or flaccid
2. Sucrose concentration in the guard cell sap
- In presence of light, photosynthesis occurs and produces sucrose
- In absence of light, sugar in guard cells converts into starch

Opening of Stomata (opposite for closing, just vice versa)

Uptake of potassium ions in guard cells Sucrose concentration in guard cell sap

1. Potassium ions enter guard cells (moves 1. In presence of light, photosynthesis occurs
out) (absence, does not occur)
2. Solute potential in guard cells increases 2. Concentration of sucrose in guard cell sap
3. Water potential in guard cell decreases increases
4. Water diffuses from the epidermal cells into 3. Water potential in guard cell sap decreases
guard cells via osmosis 4. Water diffuses from the epidermal cells into
5. Guard cells become turgid and curve the guard calls via osmosis
outwards (flaccid) 5. Guard cells become turgid and curve
outwards (flaccid)

Plant with enough water Plant lacking water

- Guard cells become turgid - Guard cells become flaccid

- Inner cell wall of guard cell is thick and less - Thin and more elastic outer cell wall lose
elastic, thin and more elastic outer cell wall turgidity
curves outwards - Stoma closes
- Stoma opens

Transpiration - process of water loss in the form of water vapour through evaporation
Necessities:
- Cools plant
- Moves water and mineral salts to all parts of a plant
 - Removes excess water from plants
Environmental factors that affect rate of transpiration:
1. Light intensity
- When light intensity increases, rate of transpiration also increases until it becomes constant
- Relative air humidity, temperature, and air movement becomes limiting factors
2. Relative air humidity
- The lower the relative air humidity of the surroundings, the faster the rate of transpiration
3. Temperature
- An increase in temperature also increases the kinetic energy of water molecules thus
increasing the rate of transpiration
4. Air movement
- Movement of air carries away water molecules that have been diffused out of leaves
- Thus, the faster the air movement, the faster the rate of transpiration

Necessities of photosynthesis:
- Plants are autotrophs (they synthesise their own food through photosynthesis)
- Glucose which is produced via photosynthesis is used by other organisms to create energy through the
oxidation of food

Chloroplast Structure (which functions as a site for photosynthesis)

a) Thylakoid
- Disc-shaped sacs containing chlorophyll
- Traps light
- Site for light-dependant reactions
b) Granum
- A stack of thylakoid which increase the surface area for optimal photosynthesis
c) Stroma
- Colourless fluid that surrounds granum
- Site for light-independent reactions

12H2O + 6CO2 =(light energy, chlorophyll)= C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Water + carbon dioxide =(light energy, chlorophyll)= Glucose + water + oxygen

Light-dependant reactions Light-independent reactions

Occurs in thylakoid Occurs in stroma

Produces oxygen and water Produces glucose

Needs water and chlorophyll Needs carbon dioxide

Produces ATP molecules Uses ATP molecules

Environmental factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis

a) Concentration of carbon dioxide
Increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the photosynthesis rate if there are no other limiting
factors
b) Light intensity
Rate of photosynthesis will increase until it reaches its maximum point at noon if the concentration of
carbon dioxide and temperature remains constant
c) Temperature
Reactions in photosynthesis are catalysed by enzymes. Changes in temperature affect enzyme activity
and rate of photosynthesis. In general, optimum temperature for plants is between 25-30 degrees
celsius. In high temperatures, enzymes denature and photosynthesis is halted.

Limiting factors are factors that control a biochemistry process. An increase in limiting factors will also increase
the rate of a certain biochemistry process.
Effect of different lights + colours of photosynthesis rate
- Each colour has its own wavelength
- Rate of photosynthesis is highest in blue and red lights as red lights are absorbed by chlorophyll
whereas blue lights are absorbed by carotenoids before being transferred to chlorophylls

Why is a leaf with chlorophyll seen as green?

When light passes through a leaf, most of the blue and red lights are absorbed and green light is reflected back.
Thus, our eyes can only see green colour on leaves containing chlorophyll.

! Compensation point is when the rate of photosynthesis is the same as the rate of cellular respiration
- Amount of carbon dioxide released during cellular respiration is the same as amount of carbon dioxide
used during photosynthesis (& vice versa)

Plants do not grow normally if the rate of photosynthesis and rate of cellular respiration remains at compensation
point because:
- Rate of photosynthesis is low
- There is no excess food stored
- There is no excess energy for growth

Similarities

Both processes involves the exchange of gases

Differences

Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Occurs in green plants and photosynthetic bacterias Occurs in all living organisms

Happens in cells containing chloroplasts Happens in all cells

Site for photosynthesis is in chloroplast Site for cellular respiration is in mitochondria

Produces glucose Produces energy

Requires light Does not require light

CH3
There are two kinds of nutrients: macronutrients which are needed in large amounts, and micronutrients which
are needed in small amounts
- The three main macronutrients (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) can be obtained easily through air, soil,
and water
- Remaining nutrients are taken in the form of minerals that have been dissolved in the soil through
fertilisation

Main Macronutrients
Macronutrients Function Effects of Deficiency

Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Major component of organic Plant wilts

molecules

Nitrogen Gives green colour to plants Plant undergoes chlorosis

Component of proteins

Potassium Important in protein synthesis Protein synthesis disrupted

Maintains plant turgidity

Magnesium Main component of structure of Plant undergoes chlorosis

chlorophyll molecule

Main Micronutrients
Micronutrients Function Effects of Deficiency

Chlorine Important in the equilibrium of Plant wilts

osmotic pressure in cells
Plant undergoes chlorosis and
necrosis

Iron Acts as a cofactor in chlorophyll Plant undergoes chlorosis

synthesis

Manganese Activates photosynthetic enzymes Light brown or grey spots occur

between leaf veins

Zinc Involves in the synthesis of auxin Stunted growth

! Roots
- Provide support and strength to anchor plants in soil
- Absorb water and mineral salts from soil and transports them to the stem and leaves
Root hairs Increases total surface area of roots to increase the uptake of water and mineral salts

Root cap Protects roots from damage when going through the soil

Root adaptations for water and mineral salts uptake

Epidermis Thin cell walls and water permeable membranes for water movement in roots

Cortex Cells are loosely arranged for gaseous exchange

Endodermis Cells are closely arranged and one cell thick for water and mineral salts to enter the
vascular cylinder

Vascular cylinder Consists of xylem and phloem tissues that are surrounded by one cell thick pericycle cell
tissues; xylem tissues transports water and mineral salts whereas phloem tissues
transports organic substances
Diversity in Plant Nutrition
Parasitic plants - Live by growing on other plant which are hosts
- Many species have roots that functions as haustoria which causes the parasitic
plant to grow faster and flourish whereas the host is malnourished and will
eventually die

Carnivorous plants - Can synthesise their own food by carrying out photosynthesis
- Secretes nectar to attract insects
- After insects are trapped, they will be slowly digested by digestive enzymes for
nutrient absorption

Epiphytic plants - Live on other plants which are hosts

- Can synthesise their own food by carrying out photosynthesis
- Live on taller hosts to receive more sunlight for photosynthesis
- Does not harm host
CH4
Necessity of Transport in plants
- To carry out photosynthesis
- To transport product of photosynthesis to other parts of a plant for growth

Xylem transports water and mineral salts; phloem transports organic substances

Xylem (same as from in CH1)

+ Pits
- Provides mechanical support to plants
- Allow movement of water to adjacent cells
+ Has several shapes: annual, spiral, scalariform, and pitted
Phloem
- Sieve tubes do not have nuclei, ribosomes, or vacuoles which allows sucrose molecules to pass through
sieve tubes easily
- On both ends of a sieve tube, there are sieve plates with pores that allows organic substances to pass
through from one sieve tube to the other
- Companion cells contains mitochondria which provides ATP to actively transport sucrose from leaves to
the sieve tubes

Transport of water and mineral salts

A) Water moving from soil to xylem vessels (involves root pressure)
1. Water pressure in the root hair cells is lower compared to water pressure in soil due to mineral ions
being actively pumped by root hair cells into the vacuoles.
2. Water diffuses into the root hair cells and epidermal cells via osmosis.
3. High water potential in the root hair cells causes water to diffuse into the cortex via osmosis.
4. This condition causes water to continuously diffuse into the cortex, endodermis, and pericycle layers.
5. This causes root pressure to push water into the xylem vessels of the root and then into the xylem
vessels of the stem.

B) Water moving in the xylem vessels (involves capillary action and transpiration pull)
1. The movement of water in the xylem vessels is helped by transpiration pull and capillary action.
2. Capillary action is produced from adhesion force and cohesion force of water molecules which pulls
water upwards continuously in the xylem vessel against gravity.
3. Transpiration process makes water diffuse out as water vapour through spaces between cells to the
surroundings through opened stoma.
4. Spongy mesophyll cells lose water and they have a low water potential to adjacent cells.
5. Water molecules diffuse from neighbouring cells via spongy mesophyll cells by osmosis.
6. This movement creates a transpiration pull that pulls water molecules from the xylem vessels of leaves
to outside of leaves.

Guttation is a secretion of water droplets at the hydathodes without involving stomata and is caused by high root
pressure. This condition usually occurs at night or early in the morning when air humidity is high and surrounding
temperature is low.

Similarities

Both involves permanent water loss in plants

Differences

Transpiration Guttation

Occurs on hot and windy days Occurs at night or early in the morning

Controlled by stomatal opening and closing Caused by high root pressure

Releases pure water Releases water rich in minerals

 Loses water in the form of water vapour Loses water in the form of water droplets

Translocation is the process of transporting organic substances from leaves to other parts of a plant.

Translocation
1. Sucrose is actively transported into the sieve tube.
2. This reduces the water potential of the sieve tube which causes water to diffuse from the xylem vessels
into the sieve tube via osmosis.
3. This increases hydrostatic pressure of sieve tubes which pushes the phloem sap (sucrose) along the
sieve tubes to other parts of plants such as the stem, roots, and fruits via active transport.
4. High water potential in the phloem causes water to diffuse back into the xylem vessels via osmosis.
5. Transpiration pulls water along the xylem vessel against gravity.

Phytoremediation - a treatment method which uses plants to eliminate polluted substances form soil and water;
these plants are known as hyperaccumulators based on their high tolerance to heavy metals and high biomass.
1. Sunflowers
- Used for remediation of pollution soil by the explosion of nuclear plant in russia
- Can eliminate heavy metals and radioactive substances
2. Water spinach
- Roots can absorb mercury from soil and heavy metals from water
3. Water lettuce
- Are aquatic plants suitable for treating wastewater
- Can accumulate heavy metals and absorb nutrients
CH5
Responding to stimuli is a characteristic of an organism to ensure survival
- Two types: tropism movement (directional growth) & nastic movement (non-directional growth)

Tropism movement is controlled by phytohormones

Phototropism - Response towards light
- Shoot grows towards light, positive phototropism
- Root grows away from light, negative phototropism

Geotropism - Response to gravity

- Shoot grows away from gravity, negative geotropism
- Root grows towards gravity, positive geotropism

Hydrotropism - Response to water

- Root bends towards moist areas of soil, positive hydrotropism

Thigmotropism - Response to touch

- Tendrils of morning glory coils when coming in contact with other plants or objects
to gain support and increase light absorption

Chemotropism - Response to chemicals

Nastic movement is quicker and more apparent

Photonasty - Response to the intensity of light
- E.g. japanese roses open when they receive maximum sunlight and closes at
night

Seismonasty - Response to mechanical stimuli (shock, touch, rain drops)

- E,g, mimosa pudica folds leaves suddenly when you touch it

Nyctinasty - Response to the daily cycle ot light and dark

- E.g. leaves of legume plants (river tamarind) closes at night and unfurls during
daytime

Thermonasty - Response to changes in temperature

- E.g. Tulip opens when temperature rises and closes when temperature drops

Thigmonasty - Response to contact of an object

- E.g. shutting of a venus flytrap

Phytohormones

Auxin - Stimulate shoot growth

- Stimulates root growth at low concentration
- Stimulates fruit development after fertilisation

Gibberellin - Stimulates cell elongation at stem

- Stimulates seed germination

Cytokinin - Stimulates cell division in the presence of auxin

Abscisic Acid - Stimulates the closing of stomata during water stress

Ethylene - Stimulates ripening of fruits

- Stimulates senescence of fruits and leaves

Role of Auxin in plant responses

A) Phototropism
1. Auxin is produced at the tip of shoots and diffuse down slowly
2. Plant grows straight upwards
 3. When plant is exposed to light form only one direction, auxin moves to the shaded side of the
stem
4. Higher concentration of auxin on the shaded side of the shoot
5. Cells on the shaded side of the shoot elongates more than cells on the bright side of the shoot
6. Shoot bends towards light, positive phototropism
B) Geotropism
1. Auxins are produced at the shoot tip and root tip
2. Due to gravity, auxins accumulate at the bottom of shoots and roots.
3. Higher auxin concentration at lower side promotes shoot growth
4. Shoot bends upwards, negative geotropism
5. Higher auxin concentration at lower side inhibits root growth
6. Roots bends downwards, positive geotropism
*higher auxin concentration in shoots promotes growth; higher auxin concentration in roots inhibits growth

Applications of Phytohormones in Agriculture

Auxin Application of auxin on flowers before fertilisation forms seedless fruits - this process is known
as parthenocarpy

Gibberellin Stimulates increase in fruit size of grapes

Ethylene Stimulates fruit ripening // speeds up maturation of pineapples and watermelons