Internet of Things – (18CS81)

Internet of Things – (18CS81)

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO IOT

1. Write short notes on IoT and Digitisation?

Explain Genesis of IoT with examples.
answer:

IoT and Digitisation

• IoT and digitization are terms that are often used interchangeably.
• In most contexts, this duality is fine, but there are key differences to be aware of.
• At a high level, IoT focuses on connecting “things,” such as objects and machines, to a
computer network, such as the Internet.
• IoT is a well-understood term used across the industry as a whole.
• On the other hand, digitization can mean different things to different people but
generally encompasses the connection of “things” with the data they generate and the
business insights that result.
• Digitization, as defined in its simplest form, is the conversion of information into a
digital format.
• Digitization has been happening in one form or another for several decades.
• For example, the whole photography industry has been digitized.
• Pretty much everyone has digital cameras these days, either standalone devices or built
into their mobile phones.
• Almost no one buys film and takes it to a retailer to get it developed.
• The digitization of photography has completely changed our experience when it comes
to capturing images.

Genesis of IoT

• The person credited with the creation of the term “Internet of Things” is Kevin Ashton.
• While working for Procter & Gamble in 1999, Kevin used this phrase to explain a new
idea related to linking the company’s supply chain to the Internet.

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• The evolution of the Internet can be categorized into four phases. Each of these phases
has had a profound impact on our society and our lives.

Internet Phase Definition

Connectivity This phase connected people to Email, Web Services, and

(Digitize access) Search so that information is easily accesses.

Networked Economy This phase enabled E–commerce and Supply chain

(Digitize business) enhancements along with collaborative engagement to drive
increased efficiency in business processes.

Immersive This phase extended the Internet experience to encompass

Experience widespread video and social media while always being
(Digitize interactions) connected through mobility. More and more applications are
moved into the cloud.

Internet of Things This phase is adding connectivity to objects and machines in

(Digitize the world) the world around us to enable new services and experiences.
It is connecting the unconnected.

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2. Explain oneM2M IoT Standardized Architecture with a neat diagram.

answer:

• In an effort to standardize the rapidly growing field of machine-to-machine (M2M)

communications, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created
the M2M Technical Committee in 2008.
• The goal of this committee was to create a common architecture that would help
accelerate the adoption of M2M applications and devices.
• Over time, the scope has expanded to include the Internet of Things.
• One of the greatest challenges in designing an IoT architecture is dealing with the
heterogeneity of devices, software, and access methods.
• By developing a horizontal platform architecture, oneM2M is developing standards that
allow interoperability at all levels of the IoT stack

• Applications layer:
The oneM2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity between devices and
their applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols and attempts to
standardize northbound API definitions for interaction with business intelligence (BI)
systems. Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets of data
models, and thus they are shown as vertical entities.
• Services layer:
This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry applications.
At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT applications
run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples include
backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on. Riding on
top is the common services layer.
• Network layer:
This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It includes the
devices themselves and the communications network that links them. Embodiments of
this communications infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies, such as IEEE
802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah.

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3. List and explain the challenges, its impact and problems that IoT is
currently facing with an example.
answer:
Challenges Description
Scale • While the scale of IT networks can be large, the scale of OT can be
several orders of magnitude larger.
• For example, one large electrical utility in Asia recently began
deploying IPv6-based smart meters on its electrical grid.
• While this utility company has tens of thousands of employees the
number of meters in the service area is tens of millions.
• This means the scale of the network the utility is managing has
increased by more than 1,000-fold! explores how new design
approaches are being developed to scale IPv6 networks into the
millions of devices.
Security • With more “things” becoming connected with other “things” and
people, security is an increasingly complex issue for IoT.
• Your threat surface is now greatly expanded, and if a device gets
hacked, its connectivity is a major concern.
• A compromised device can serve as a launching point to attack
other devices.
• IoT security is also pervasive across just about every facet of IoT.
Privacy • As sensors become more prolific in our everyday lives, much of the
data they gather will be specific to individuals and their activities.
• This data can range from health information to shopping patterns
and transactions at a retail establishment.
• For businesses, this data has monetary value.
• Organizations are now discussing who owns this data and how
individuals can control whether it is shared and with whom.
Big Data • IoT and its large number of sensors is going to trigger a deluge of
and Data data that must be handled.
Analytics • This data will provide critical information and insights if it can be
processed in an efficient manner.
• The challenge, however, is evaluating massive amounts of data
arriving from different sources in various forms and doing so in a
timely manner.
Inter- • As with any other nascent technology, various protocols and
operability architectures are jockeying for market share and standardization
within IoT.
• Some of these protocols and architectures are based on proprietary
elements, and others are open.
• Recent IoT standards are helping minimize this problem, but there
are often various protocols and implementations available for IoT
networks.
• The prominent protocols and architectures—especially open,
standards-based implementations—are the subject of this book.

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4. With a neat diagram explaining the IoTWF standardized architecture.

answer:

• This publishes a seven-layer IoT architectural reference model.

• While various IoT reference models exist, one put forth by the IoT World Forum offers
a clean, simplified perspective on IoT and includes edge computing, data storage, and
access.
• It provides a succinct way of visualizing IoT from a technical perspective.
• Each of the seven layers is broken down into specific functions, and security
encompasses the entire model.

• Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer

o The first layer of IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers’ layer.
o This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various
endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information.
o The size of these “things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant
machines in a factory.
o Their primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or
controlled over a network.

• Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

o In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity.
o Most important function of this IoT layer is reliable and timely transmission of data.
o More specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the
network and between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer
3 (the edge computing layer).

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• Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

o Edge computing is the role of Layer 3.
o Edge computing is often referred to as the “fog” layer and is discussed in the section
“Fog Computing,” later in this chapter.
o At this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows
into information that is ready for storage and processing by higher layers.
o One of the basic principles of this reference model is that information processing is
initiated as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible.
o Another important function that occurs at Layer 3 is the evaluation of data to see if
it can be filtered or aggregated before being sent to a higher layer.
o This also allows for data to be reformatted or decoded, making additional
processing by other systems easier.
o Thus, a critical function is assessing the data to see if predefined thresholds are
crossed and any action or alerts need to be sent.

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• Upper Layers: Layers 4–7

o The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated by the
bottom layer.
o For the sake of completeness, Layers 4–7 of the IoT Reference Model are
summarized

IoT Reference Model Layer Functions

Layer 4: • Captures data and stores it so it is usable by

Data accumulation layer applications when necessary.
• Converts event-based data to query-based
processing.

Layer 5: • Reconciles multiple data formats and ensures

Data abstraction layer consistent semantics from various sources.
• Confirms that the data set is complete and
consolidates data into one place or multiple data
stores using virtualization.

Layer 6: • Interprets data using software applications.

Applications layer • Applications may monitor, control, and provide
reports based on the analysis of the data.

Layer 7: • Consumes and shares the application

Collaboration and information.
processes layer • Collaborating on and communicating IoT
information often requires multiple steps, and it
is what makes IoT useful.
• This layer can change business processes and
delivers the benefits of IoT.

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5. Difference between Edge and Fog computing.

With a neat diagram explain the fog computing model along with its
defining characteristics.
answer:

Comparison Edge Computing Fog Computing

Location Processing and data storage Processing and data storage occur at
occur at the edge devices or intermediate nodes in the network,
endpoints of the network. closer to the edge devices but not
directly on them.

Scope Primarily focuses on Focuses on a broader network

individual devices or infrastructure, encompassing
endpoints. multiple edge devices and their
interactions.

Scale Typically involves a Supports a larger number of devices

smaller number of devices and provides more scalability.
or endpoints.

Resources Limited computational and More computational and storage

storage resources available resources available at intermediate
on edge devices. nodes

Latency Offers lower latency as Provides lower latency compared to

data processing occurs centralized cloud computing but
closer to the source. higher latency than edge computing.

Hierarchy Generally, operates in a Can involve hierarchical

decentralized manner architectures with multiple layers of
without hierarchical layers. fog nodes.

Connectivity Primarily relies on local Can leverage both local network

network connections. connections and wider area network
connections.

Data Volume Handles smaller volumes of Handles larger volumes of data

data generated by generated by multiple devices and
individual devices. supports data aggregation.

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Management Device-centric Network-centric management and

management and control. control.

Use Cases Well-suited for latency- Suitable for distributed applications,

sensitive applications and data analytics, and providing
real-time processing at the localized services within a network.
device level.

Fog computing model

• The Fog Computing Model is a distributed computing model that extends the cloud
computing paradigm to the edge of the network.
• It enables data processing and storage at the network edge, closer to the source of
data, which reduces latency and improves network efficiency.
• Fog nodes are the computing resources deployed at the edge of the network, which
can be anything from routers, switches, gateways, to servers and storage dev ices.
• The Fog Computing Model can support a variety of applications, including IoT,
smart cities, and autonomous vehicles.
• The key benefits of the Fog Computing Model include lower latency, improved
security, better QoS, and reduced bandwidth usage.

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Characteristics
• Contextual location awareness and low latency
Fog node sits as close to the IoT endpoint as possible to deliver distributed computing.

• Geographic distribution
In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services and applications targeted
by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.

• Deployment near IoT endpoints

Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a large number of IoT endpoints.

• Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint

Although it is possible to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when
dealing with a large number of endpoints, and wireless access is the easiest way to
achieve such scale.

• Use for real-time interactions

Important fog applications involve real-time interactions rather than batch processing.

6. Compare IT and OT networks with their challenges.

answer:

Criterion Industrial OT Network Enterprise IT Network

Operational Keep the business operating Manage the computers, data, and
focus 24x7 employee communication system in
a secure way
Priorities 1. Availability 1. Security
2. Integrity 2. Integrity
3. Security 3. Availability
Types of Monitoring, control, and Voice, video, transactional, and bulk
data supervisory data data
Security Controlled physical access to Devices and users authenticated to
devices the network
Implication OT network disruption directly Can be business impacting,
of failure impacts business depending on industry, but
workarounds may be possible
Network Only during operational Often requires an outage window
upgrades maintenance windows when workers are not onsite; impact
(software or can be mitigated
hardware)
Security Low: OT networks are isolated High: continual patching of hosts is
vulnerability and often use proprietary required, and the network is
protocols connected to Internet and requires
vigilant protection

ALSO WRITE QUESTION 3 HERE TOO

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7. Explain the IoT architectural drivers.

answer:

Challenges Description IoT Architectural Change Required

Scale The massive scale of IoT The IPv4 address space has reached
endpoints (sensors) is far exhaustion and is unable to meet IoT’s
beyond that of typical IT scalability requirements. Scale can be
networks. met only by using IPv6. IT networks
continue to use IPv4 through features
like Network Address Translation (NAT).

Security IoT devices, especially Security is required at every level of the

those on wireless sensor IoT network. Every IoT endpoint node
networks (WSNs), are on the network must be part of the
often physically exposed overall security strategy and must
to the world. support device-level authentication and
link encryption. It must also be easy to
deploy with some type of a zero-touch
deployment model.

Devices and Due to massive scale and New last-mile wireless technologies are
networks longer distance, networks needed to support constrained IoT
constrained by are often constrained, devices over long distances.
power, CPU, lossy, and capable of The network is also constrained,
memory, and supporting only minimal meaning modifications need to be made
link speed data rates (tens of bps to to traditional network-layer transport
hundreds of Kbps). mechanisms.

The massive The sensors generate a Data analytics capabilities need to be

volume of data massive amount of data distributed throughout the IoT network,
generated on a daily basis, causing from the edge to the cloud. In traditional
network bottlenecks and IT networks, analytics and applications
slow analytics in cloud. typically run only in the cloud.

Support for An IoT network often Digital transformation is a long process

legacy devices comprises a collection of that may take many years, and IoT
modern, IP-capable networks need to support protocol
endpoints as well as translation and/or tunnelling mechanisms
legacy, non-IP devices to support legacy protocols over
that rely on serial or standards-based protocols, such as
proprietary protocols. Ethernet and IP

The need for Whereas traditional IT Analytics software needs to be

data to be networks perform positioned closer to the edge and should
analyzed in scheduled batch support real-time streaming analytics.
real time processing of data, IoT Traditional IT analytics software (such as
data needs to be analyzed relational databases or even Hadoop), are
and responded to in real- better suited to batch-level analytics that
time. occur after the fact.

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MODULE 2: SMART OBJECTS

1. Define sensors and actuators.

Discuss the different categories and types of sensors and actuators with
examples?
List advantages and disadvantages of each. (20M)
answer:

Sensors measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading into a
digital representation.

Categories
• Active or passive
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and
typically require an external power supply (active) or whether they simply receive
energy and typically require no external power supply (passive).

• Invasive or non-invasive
Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part of the environment it is
measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).

• Contact or no-contact
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require physical contact with what
they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).

• Absolute or relative
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an absolute scale
(absolute) or based on a difference with a fixed or variable reference value (relative).

• Area of application
Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical where they are
being used.

• How sensors measure

Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism used to measure sensory
input (for example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid
mechanic, photoelastic).

• What sensors measure

Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what physical variables they
measure.

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Types
Sensor Types Description Examples

Position A position sensor measures the position of an Potentiometer

object; the position measurement can be either in Inclinometer
absolute terms (absolute position sensor) or in Proximity
relative terms (displacement sensor). Position sensor
sensors can be linear, angular, or multi-axis.

Occupancy Occupancy sensors detect the presence of people Electric eye

and motion and animals in a surveillance area, while motion Radar
sensors detect movement of people and objects.
The difference between the two is that occupancy
sensors generate a signal even when a person is
stationary, whereas motion sensors do not.

Velocity and Velocity (speed of motion) sensors may be linear Accelerometer

acceleration or angular, indicating how fast an object moves Gyroscope
along a straight line or how fast it rotates.
Acceleration sensors measure changes in velocity.

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Force Force sensors detect whether a physical force is Force gauge

applied and whether the magnitude of force is Viscometer,
beyond a threshold. Tactile sensor
(touch sensor)

Pressure Pressure sensors are related to force sensors, Barometer

measuring force applied by liquids or gases. Bourdon gauge
Pressure is measured in terms of force per unit Piezometer
area.

Flow Flow sensors detect the rate of fluid flow. They Anemometer
measure the volume (mass flow) or rate (flow Mass flow
velocity) of fluid that has passed through a system sensor
in a given period of time. Water meter

Acoustic Acoustic sensors measure sound levels and Microphone

convert that information into digital or analog data Geophone
signals. Hydrophone

Humidity Humidity sensors detect humidity (amount of Hygrometer

water vapor) in the air or a mass. Humidity levels Humistor
can be measured in various ways: absolute Soil moisture
humidity, relative humidity, mass ratio, and so on. sensor

Light Light sensors detect the presence of light (visible Infrared sensor
or invisible). Photodetector
Flame detector

Radiation Radiation sensors detect radiation in the Geiger-Müller

environment. Radiation can be sensed by counter
scintillating or ionization detection. Scintillator
Neutron
detector

Temperature Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat Thermometer

or cold that is present in a system. They can be Calorimeter
broadly of two types: contact and non-contact. Temperature
Contact temperature sensors need to be in physical gauge
contact with the object being sensed. Non-contact
sensors do not need physical contact, as they
measure temperature through convection and
radiation.

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Chemical Chemical sensors measure the concentration of Breathalyzer

chemicals in a system. When subjected to a mix Olfactometer
of chemicals, chemical sensors are typically Smoke detector
selective for a target type of chemical (for
example, a CO2 sensor senses only carbon
dioxide).

Biosensors Biosensors detect various biological elements, Blood glucose

such as organisms, tissues, cells, enzymes, biosensor
antibodies, and nucleic acid. Pulse oximetry
Electrocardiograph

Advantages Disadvantages
• Real-time data collection • Cost of implementation and
• Remote monitoring and maintenance
control • Limited battery life or power
• Improved accuracy and requirements
precision • Data privacy and security concerns
• Enhanced automation and • Compatibility issues with different
efficiency protocols and systems
• Cost-effective solution • Sensitivity to environmental
• Predictive maintenance conditions
capabilities • Calibration and accuracy challenges
• Increased safety and security • Data overload and management
• Environmental monitoring complexity
and conservation • Vulnerability to physical damage or
• Data-driven decision-making tampering
• Integration with other IoT • Limited processing capabilities
devices and systems • Dependency on network connectivity.

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Actuators are natural complements to sensors, it receives some type of control signal
that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion, force, and so on

Categories
• Type of motion
o Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for example,
linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes).

• Power
o Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power,
low power, micro power)

• Binary or continuous
o Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state outputs.
• Area of application
o Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical where they are
used.

• Type of energy
o Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.

Type Examples

Mechanical actuators Lever

Screw jack
Hand crank

Electrical actuators Thyristor

Bio-polar transistor
Diode

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Electromechanical actuators AC motor

DC motor
Step motor

Electromagnetic actuators Electromagnet

Linear solenoid

Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators Hydraulic cylinder

Pneumatic cylinder
Piston
Pressure control valves
Air motors

Smart material actuators (includes Shape memory alloy (SMA)

thermal and magnetic actuators) Ion exchange fluid
Magneto restrictive material
Bimetallic strip
Piezoelectric bimorph

Micro- and nanoactuators Electrostatic motor

Microvalve
Comb drive

Advantages Disadvantages
• Enable remote control and • Cost of implementation and
automation. maintenance
• Facilitate real-time response and • Limited durability and lifespan
feedback. • Dependency on power supply or
• Enhance efficiency and energy source
productivity. • Compatibility issues with
• Enable precise and targeted different protocols and systems
actions. • Reliability and fault tolerance
• Support seamless integration with challenges
IoT devices and systems. • Response time limitations
• Enable intelligent decision- • Complexity in controlling and
making and adaptive behavior. coordinating multiple actuators
• Enhance user convenience and • Vulnerability to physical
comfort. damage or tampering
• Enable proactive maintenance and • Limited range or scope of
fault detection. operation
• Enable personalized and • Dependency on network
customized experiences. connectivity.
• Support energy optimization and
conservation.

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2. Briefly explain Protocol Stack Utilization in IEEE 802.15.4.

answer:

• IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-
WPANs).
• It defines the physical (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) layers for LR-
WPANs.
• The protocol stack for IEEE 802.15.4 includes the PHY layer, MAC layer, and
network layer (optional).
• The PHY layer is responsible for transmitting and receiving data over the wireless
medium, and includes functions such as modulation and demodulation.
• The MAC layer manages access to the wireless medium and includes functions
such as channel allocation, data framing, and security.
• The network layer (optional) provides additional functionality such as addressing,
routing, and data fragmentation.
• The protocol stack for IEEE 802.15.4 can be illustrated using a table that shows the
layers, their functions, and the corresponding protocols and standards.

3. Briefly explain High–level Zigbee and Zigbee protocol stack with a neat
diagram.
answer:
BOTH ZIGBEE PROTOCOL STACK AND HIGH–LEVEL ZIGBEE
PROTOCOL STACK ARE SIMILAR TO ONE ANOTHER AND ALSO
THIS ANSWER IS ALREADY GIVEN IN QUESTION 2

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4. Write short notes on wireless sensor Networks.

answer:

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)

• Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are
sometimes referred to as motes.
• The fact that there is no infrastructure to consider with WSNs is surely a powerful
advantage for flexible deployments, but there are a variety of design constraints to
consider with these wirelessly connected smart objects.

Limitations
• Limited processing power
• Limited memory
• Lossy communication
• Limited transmission speeds
• Limited power

Need for communication protocol:

• Communication protocols are necessary to enable devices to exchange data and
information in a standardized manner.
• They provide a common language for devices to communicate and interact with
each other, regardless of the manufacturer or technology used.
• Communication protocols ensure efficient and reliable data transmission, enable
interoperability between devices, and help to facilitate the development of new
applications and services.

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5. Explain Smart Objects and its characteristics.

answer:

Smart Objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform
everyday objects into a network of intelligent objects that are able to learn from and interact
with their environment in a meaningful way. A smart object, is a device that has, at a
minimum.

Characteristics
• Processing Unit
o A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data, processing and
analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating control
signals to any actuators, and controlling a variety of functions on the smart object,
including the communication and power systems.

• Sensor(s) and /or actuator(s)

o It is capable of interacting with the physical world through sensors and actuators.
o A smart object does not need to contain both sensors and actuators.
o In fact, a smart object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators,
depending upon the application.

• Communication Device
o The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object with other
smart objects and the outside world (via the network).
o Communication devices for smart objects can be either wired or wireless.

• Power Source
o Smart objects have components that need to be powered.
o Interestingly, the most significant power consumption usually comes from the
communication unit of a smart object.

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6. What is SANET?
Explain some advantages and disadvantages that a wireless based
solution offers?
answer:

• A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that

sense and measure their environment and/or actuators that act on their environment.
• The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and
cooperating in a productive manner.
• Effective and well-coordinated communication and cooperation is a prominent
challenge, primarily because the sensors and actuators in SANETs are diverse,
heterogeneous, and resource-constrained.
• SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities.
• Smart homes are a type of SANET that display this coordination between distributed
sensors and actuators.
• For example, smart homes can have temperature sensors that are strategically
networked with heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) actuators.
• When a sensor detects a specified temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action
and heat or cool the home as needed.
• While such networks can theoretically be connected in a wired or wireless fashion, the
fact that SANETs are typically found in the “real world” means that they need an
extreme level of deployment flexibility.
• For example, smart home temperature sensors need to be expertly located in strategic
locations throughout the home, including at HVAC entry and exit points.

Advantages
• Greater deployment flexibility
(especially in extreme environments or hard-to-reach places)
• Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
• Lower implementation costs
• Easier long-term maintenance
• Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
• Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes

Disadvantages
• Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
• Typically lower transmission speeds
• Greater level of impact/influence by environment

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7. Write a short note on LoRaWAN.

answer:

• LPWA enables long-range, battery-powered IoT solutions.

• LoRaWAN is an unlicensed-band LPWA technology.
• Licensed-band alternatives like NB-IoT offer IoT connectivity options.

Standardization and Alliances Initially

• LoRa: Long-range, low-power modulation technology for IoT.
• LoRa Alliance: Industry-supported organization for LoRaWAN specifications.
• LoRaWAN: End-to-end communications and protocols for LoRa technology.
• Semtech: Provides the PHY layer for LoRa modulation.
• LoRaWAN Layers: Semtech for PHY, LoRa Alliance for MAC.

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Topology
• LoRaWAN: "Star of stars" topology with gateways and network server.
• Gateways: Bridges between endpoints and LoRaWAN network server.

Security
• LoRaWAN Security: Two layers of security for communication and data privacy.
• Network Security Layer: Authenticates endpoints and encrypts LoRaWAN
packets.
• Application Security Layer: Encrypts data between endpoint and application
server.
• Gateway Protection: Gateways secured for traffic and network management.

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MODULE 3: IP FOR IOT AS NETWORK LAYER

1. List two advantages of Internet protocol?

Explain with example MQTT Protocol.
What is the role of the MQTT protocol in IoT?
answer:

Key advantages of Internet Protocol

• Open and standards-based
IoT enables device and application interchangeability and security. Open standards-
based solutions needed. IETF foundation for network and transport layers.

• Versatile
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, cellular not universally applicable. Communication tech evolves faster
than OT. Layered IP architecture flexible for diverse layers.

• Ubiquitous
Recent OS releases support integrated IPv4 and IPv6 IP stacks. IoT app protocols
increasingly run over IP. IPv6 adoption growing.

• Scalable
Adding IoT devices may require specific design rules. Similar to voice and video
endpoints over IP. IP is scalable.

• Manageable and highly secure

IP enables network management and security capabilities for IoT. It also offers
operational business application and compatibility with existing management tools.

• Stable and resilient

IP widely used in critical infrastructures and services, such as finance, defense, and
voice/video, proving its reliability and security.

• Consumers’ market adoption

IoT for consumers mainly uses IP protocol to link with devices via broadband and
mobile wireless infrastructure such as smartphones, tablets, and PCs.

• The innovation factor

IP underpins file transfer, email, the web, e-commerce, social media, and mobility,
among other applications.

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(Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): MQTT Protocol

• Lightweight protocol for efficient machine-to-machine communication over
networks.
• Designed for resource-constrained devices with low bandwidth and power.
• Publish-subscribe messaging model allows efficient data distribution.
• Supports reliable message delivery with Quality of Service (QoS) levels.
• Simple and easy-to-implement protocol for IoT applications.
• Enables real-time data streaming and remote device control.
• Uses minimal network overhead and optimized for low-latency communication.
• Supports bidirectional communication between devices and centralized brokers.
• Scalable architecture for connecting a large number of devices.
• Widely adopted in IoT, industrial automation, and home automation applications.

Role of the MQTT protocol in IoT

• Facilitates efficient and lightweight communication between IoT devices.
• Enables seamless integration and interoperability among diverse IoT systems.
• Provides reliable and real-time data exchange for IoT applications.
• Supports scalable and distributed messaging architecture for IoT networks.
• Enables remote device management and control in IoT ecosystems.
• Optimized for low-power and resource-constrained IoT devices.
• Enhances security with features like authentication and encryption.
• Enables efficient data collection, monitoring, and analytics in IoT.
• Enables seamless integration with cloud platforms and IoT gateways.
• Plays a crucial role in enabling IoT device-to-device and device-to-cloud
communication.

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2. With a neat figure explain 6LoWPAN Header Compression.

answer:

6LoWPAN Protocol Header Compression

• 6LoWPAN Protocol Header Compression (PHC) is a technique used to reduce the size
of IPv6 headers in low-power wireless networks, such as those used in IoT.
• PHC uses compression algorithms, such as stateless and stateful compression, to
compress the IPv6 header.
• It also supports fragmentation and reassembly of IPv6 packets, allowing for larger
packets to be transmitted over the network.
• PHC is standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in RFC 6282 and
is widely adopted in IoT networks.
• It is an essential technique for enabling efficient IPv6 communication over low-power
wireless networks, allowing for more efficient use of network resources.

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3. Explain IoT application protocol and their transport methods.

answer:

• Application layer protocol not present

In this case, the data payload is directly transported on top of the lower layers. No
application layer protocol is used.

• Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)

SCADA is one of the most common industrial protocols in the world, but it was
developed long before the days of IP, and it has been adapted for IP networks.

• Generic web-based protocols

Generic protocols, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and 4G/ LTE, are found on many consumer-
and enterprise-class IoT devices that communicate over non-constrained networks.

• IoT application layer protocols

IoT application layer protocols are devised to run on constrained nodes with a small
compute footprint and are well adapted to the network bandwidth constraints on cellular
or satellite links or constrained 6LoWPAN networks. Message Queuing Telemetry
Transport (MQTT) and Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), covered later in this
chapter, are two wellknown examples of IoT application layer protocols.

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4. Why Optimization is necessary for Internet Protocol.

answer:

• Adapt traditional IP to suit low-power, low-bandwidth IoT devices.

• Use header compression, fragmentation, and efficient addressing to reduce overhead.
• IPv6 is commonly used due to its larger address space and support for IoT-specific
features.
• Optimization improves communication efficiency and network resource utilization.

5. What are the differences between adaptation and adoption of internet

protocols?
answer:

Adaptation Adoption
• It refers to the modification or • It refers to the widespread
adjustment of existing protocols acceptance and usage of a
to meet specific requirements or protocol by various stakeholders.
constraints. • It involves the integration and
• It involves customizing or deployment of the protocol
tailoring the protocol to suit a across different systems,
particular context or application. networks, and applications.
• It may involve adding new • It typically occurs when a
features, removing or disabling protocol becomes a standard or
certain functionalities, or widely recognized in the
optimizing the protocol for industry.
specific network conditions. • It implies a broader acceptance
• The purpose of adaptation is to and implementation by
enhance the protocol's organizations, service providers,
compatibility, performance, or and users.
functionality within a specific • It often leads to the
environment. establishment of infrastructure,
• It does not necessarily require support, and ecosystem around
widespread implementation or the protocol, fostering its growth
acceptance. and usage.

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6. Explain Protocol Stack for Transporting Serial DNP3 SCADA over IP

with a diagram
answer:

• Ethernet adoption led to the evolution of SCADA protocols.

• Legacy industrial protocols were updated to run over IP networks.
• TCP/UDP port numbers were assigned to protocols for IP transport.
• DNP3, Modbus, IEC 60870-5-104, and DLMS support IP communication.
• Legacy protocols utilize IP and TCP/UDP for networking and transport.
• DNP3 protocol follows a master/slave relationship in SCADA networks.
• Outstations collect data from devices and transmit it to the master.
• Master issues control commands and logs incoming data.
• DNP3 protocol can run over TCP or UDP based on IEEE 1815-2012.
• Connection management links DNP3 layers with IP layers in implementation.

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MODULE 4: DATA AND ANALYTICS FOR IOT

1. Explain the following packages of Hadoop Ecosystem:

(i) Apache Kafka (ii) Apache Spark
(iii) Apache Storm (iv) Apache Flink
answer:

(i) Apache Kafka

• Distributed streaming platform for handling real-time data feeds.
• Highly scalable, fault-tolerant, and horizontally scalable publish-subscribe system.
• Enables high-throughput, low-latency, and reliable data streaming and messaging.
• Supports real-time data processing, event-driven architectures, and data integration.
• Used in various applications like log aggregation, stream processing, and messaging
systems.

(ii) Apache Spark

• Fast and distributed cluster computing system for big data processing.
• In-memory processing for high-performance data analytics and machine learning.
• Supports batch processing, real-time stream processing, and interactive queries.
• Provides a rich set of libraries for data manipulation, graph processing, and SQL.
• Used in data-intensive applications, advanced analytics, and large-scale data
processing.

(iii) Apache Storm

• Distributed real-time computation system for processing streaming data.
• Scalable and fault-tolerant architecture for continuous data stream processing.
• Enables real-time analytics, event processing, and real-time data transformations.
• Supports high-throughput processing and low-latency data stream handling.
• Used for real-time applications, data pipelines, and stream processing workflows.

(iv) Apache Flink

• Distributed stream processing and batch processing framework for big data.
• Provides event-time processing, fault tolerance, and low-latency data streaming.
• Supports batch processing, stream processing, and complex event processing.
• Enables high-throughput, low-latency, and accurate data processing.
• Used for real-time analytics, data pipelines, machine learning, and graph processing.

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2. List and explain the comparison between Big Data, Edge Analytics and
Network analytics with relevant diagrams.
answer:

Big Data Edge Analytics Network Analytics

Large-scale data sets with Real-time data analysis at Analysis of network data to
complex and diverse the edge of the network. optimize performance and
structures. security.
Analyzed for insights, Minimizes latency and Identifies patterns,
patterns, and trends using reduces data transfer to the anomalies, and
advanced techniques. cloud. performance bottlenecks in
network infrastructure.
Enables better decision- Enables instant insights, Enhances network
making and predictive immediate response, and visibility, troubleshooting,
modeling in various local decision-making. and capacity planning.
domains.
Requires specialized tools Utilizes edge devices and Utilizes data from network
and technologies for sensors for data processing devices, logs, and traffic
storage and processing. and analytics. flows.
Used for business Used in IoT, industrial Used in network
intelligence, data-driven automation, and real-time management,
strategies, and personalized monitoring applications. cybersecurity, and network
recommendations. optimization.

NOTE I DO NOT KNOW WHETHER THIS DIAGRAM IS RELEVANT OR NOT

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3. Explain Lambda Architecture with neat diagram.

answer:

Layers in Lambda Architecture:

• Stream layer: Near-real-time processing of events using technologies like Spark
Streaming, Storm, or Flink. Enables rapid response and triggering of automated actions.
• Batch layer: Batch-processing engine and data store, utilizing Hadoop ecosystem or
other technologies like MPPs or data warehouses.
• Serving layer: Data store and mediator that decides which layer to query based on the
expected result. Enables access to both batch and real-time analytics.

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4. Explain Purdue model for control hierarchy.

Explain OT network characteristics and its challenges.
answer:

Purdue model for control hierarchy

• Security threats in IT and OT domains must be consistently addressed.
• IT information aids business decisions, while OT information supports physical
decisions.
• Convergence of IT and OT teams leads to the introduction of IT-centric solutions in OT.
• Alignment between IT and OT is crucial for end-to-end security.
• Industrial OT devices are highly optimized and have different operational profiles.
• The Purdue Model for Control Hierarchy is widely used in industrial environments.
• The model segments devices by hierarchical function levels and areas.
• It is incorporated into the ISA99/IEC 62443 security standard.
• The model helps describe the composition and function of control systems.
• It is applicable in manufacturing, oil and gas, and other industries.

• Enterprise zone
o Corporate applications, ERP, CRM, document management, internet access.
o Level 5 - Enterprise network: Corporate-level applications, VPN entry, internet
access.
o Level 4 - Business planning and logistics network: Scheduling, material flow,
optimization.

• Industrial demilitarized zone (DMZ)

o Buffer zone for shared services and data.
o DMZ: Segmentation of organizational control, no traffic traversal.

• Operational zone
o Workflow management, monitoring, production scheduling, security management.

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o Level 3 - Operations and control: Systemwide control optimization, network

management.
o Level 2 - Supervisory control: Control rooms, control system administration,
HMI.
o Level 1 - Basic control: Controllers, HMIs, communication for control functions.
o Level 0 - Process: Sensors, actuators, communication with controllers or IEDs.

• Safety zone
o Safety-critical devices, sensors, equipment for managing safety functions.

OT network characteristics and its challenges

Characteristics
• Device Diversity: IoT networks consist of a wide range of devices with varying
capabilities, protocols, and connectivity options.

• Distributed Architecture: IoT devices are geographically dispersed and

interconnected, requiring a decentralized network architecture.

• Real-time Communication: IoT OT networks often require low latency and real-time
data transmission for time-sensitive applications.

• Scalability: IoT networks need to accommodate a large number of devices and handle
the increasing volume of data generated.

• Interoperability: Ensuring seamless communication and data exchange between

different IoT devices, platforms, and protocols.

• Edge Computing: Processing and analyzing data at the network edge to reduce latency,
optimize bandwidth, and enhance efficiency.

• Security: Implementing robust security measures to protect IoT devices, data, and
network infrastructure from cyber threats and unauthorized access.

• Reliability and Availability: IoT OT networks must provide reliable and continuous
connectivity to ensure uninterrupted operations.

• Power Efficiency: Optimizing power consumption of IoT devices, especially those

deployed in remote or battery-operated environments.

• Network Management and Monitoring: Effectively managing and monitoring the

IoT OT network infrastructure, including device provisioning, firmware updates, and
troubleshooting.

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Challenges
• Security Risks: IoT devices often have vulnerabilities that can be exploited, posing
risks to data privacy, device integrity, and network security.

• Connectivity and Coverage: Ensuring reliable connectivity, especially in remote or

challenging environments, and addressing issues related to coverage gaps.

• Standardization: Lack of standardized protocols and frameworks for seamless

interoperability and integration between IoT devices and systems.

• Data Management and Analytics: Handling and processing large volumes of IoT
data, extracting valuable insights, and implementing efficient data management
strategies.

• Scalability and Network Load: Managing the increasing number of connected

devices, data traffic, and network load as the IoT deployment expands.

• Privacy Concerns: Safeguarding personal and sensitive data collected by IoT devices
and complying with privacy regulations.

• Power and Energy Constraints: Optimizing power consumption and addressing

energy limitations in IoT devices, especially in resource-constrained environments.

• Network Resilience: Building robust and resilient IoT OT networks that can withstand
disruptions, failures, and environmental challenges.

• Legacy System Integration: Integrating IoT technologies with existing legacy

systems, protocols, and infrastructure.

• Skill Gap and Knowledge: The shortage of skilled professionals with expertise in IoT
OT network design, implementation, and management.

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5. With a neat figure explaining Massively Parallel processing (MPP)

Architecture.
answer:

• Enterprises rely on relational databases (data warehouses) for structured data storage.
• Relational databases are used for long-term archiving and can be slow for data queries.
• Massively parallel processing (MPP) databases are faster and more efficient.
• MPP databases distribute data and processing across multiple nodes in a scale-out
architecture.
• MPP databases are also known as analytic databases with built-in analytic functions.
• They process large data sets in parallel across multiple processors and nodes.
• MPP architectures have a master node coordinating data storage and processing.
• Each MPP node operates independently with local processing, memory, and storage.
• Data storage in MPP databases is optimized in a structured SQL-like format.
• MPP databases provide faster response times for complex SQL queries.
• IoT implementations with diverse data sources may require alternative databases
alongside MPP.

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6. Briefly explain the different components of Flexible NetFlow Architecture

(FNF).
answer:

• Flexible NetFlow (FNF) and IPFIX are widely used network protocols. FNF provides
flexibility, scalability, aggregation of flow data, and enhanced security detection.
• FNF components include Flow Monitor, Flow Record, and Exporter.
• Flow Monitor stores flow information, including key and non-key fields.
• Flow Record characterizes flows with key and non-key field values.
• Flow Exporter configures export destination, transport type, and properties.
• Flow export timers determine the frequency of exporting flows.
• NetFlow export format specifies the flow reporting format.
• NetFlow server collects and reports exported flows for analysis.

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7. Explain the common industrial protocols and their respective security

concerns.
answer:

• Modbus
o Lack of inherent security features.
o Absence of authentication and encryption.
o Vulnerability to eavesdropping, data tampering, and unauthorized access.

• OPC (OLE for Process Control)

o Limited security mechanisms.
o Potential vulnerability to unauthorized access, data manipulation, and denial of
service attacks.

• DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol 3)

o Older versions may have vulnerabilities.
o Insecure configurations.
o Weak authentication.
o Lack of encryption.
o Potential risk of data injection, unauthorized access, and system disruptions.

• PROFIBUS (Process Field Bus)

o Lack of built-in security features.
o Limited authentication and access control capabilities.
o Vulnerability to eavesdropping, data tampering, and unauthorized device
connections.

• EtherNet/IP
o Insufficient authentication mechanisms.
o Lack of encryption.
o Risk of unauthorized access, data interception, and injection attacks.

• MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)

o Weak authentication and authorization mechanisms.
o Lack of message-level encryption.
o Potential risks of unauthorized access, data leakage, and tampering.

• ProFinet (Process Field Network)

o Limited security features.
o Weak authentication and access control.
o Vulnerability to unauthorized access, device spoofing, and network disruptions.

• BACnet (Building Automation and Control Network)

o Lack of robust security features.
o Insufficient authentication and access control mechanisms.
o Potential risks of unauthorized access, data manipulation, and network disruptions.

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MODULE 5: IOT PHYSICAL DEVICES AND ENDPOINTS

1. Explain the following with respect to Arduino programming: (10M)

(i) Structure (ii) Function
(iii) Variables and Data types (iv) Digital I/O
answer:

(i) Structure
void setup() // Preparation function used to declare variables
{
// First function that runs only one in the program
Statement(s); // It used to set pins for serial communication
}

void loop() // Execution block where instructions are executed

{
// This is the core of the Arduino programming
Statement(s); // Functionalities involve reading inputs, triggering outputs etc
}

(ii) Function
It is a piece of code that has a name and set of statements executed when function
is called. These are declared by its type followed with a name of a function.

Syntax:
type functionName(parameters)
{
Statements(s);
}

Example:
int delayvar()
{
int var; // create temporary variable var
var = analogRead(potent); // read from potentiometer
var = var/4; // convert the value of variables
return var; // return var
}
(iii) Variables and Data types

Variables
It is a way of storing value for later use in the program.
int var; // variable var visible to all functions
void setup()
{
// nothing is required
}

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void loop()
{
for(int local=0; local<5;)
{
local++: //variable local is only visible within loop
}
float local_f; //variable local_f is only visible inside the loop
}

Data types
Data type Syntax Range
Byte byte x = 100; 0 to 255
Int int y = 200; 32767 to -32768
Long long var = 8000; 2147483647 to - 2147483648
Float float x = 3.14; 3.4028235E+28 to -3.4028235E+28
Arrays int myarray [] = {10, 20, 30, 40} Size depends on the data type
associated with declaration

(iv) Digital I/O

Methods Usage
pinMode(pin, mode) Used in setup() method to configure pin to behave as INPUT
/ OUTPUT
pinMode(pin, INPUT) // pin set to INPUT
pinMode(pin, OUTPUT) // pin set to OUTPUT
Digital Read(pin) Read value from a specified pin with result being HIGH /
LOW, Val = digital Read)pin); // Val will be equal to input pin
Digital Write(pin, value) Outputs to HIGH / LOW on a specified pin.
Digital Write(pin, HIGH); // pin is set to HIGH

Example
int x = 13; // connect ‘x’ to pin 13
int p = 7; // connect push button to pin 7
int val = 0; // variable to store the read value

void setup()
{
pin MODE(x, OUTPUT); // sets ‘x’ as OUTPUT
}

void loop()
{
val = digital Read(p); // sets ‘value’ to 0
digital Write(x, val); // sets ‘x’ to button
}

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2. Explain different layers of Smart City IoT architecture. (10M)

answer:

• A smart city IoT infrastructure is a four-layered architecture.

• Data flows from devices at the street layer to the city network layer and connect to the
data center layer, where the data is aggregated, normalized, and virtualized.
• The data center layer provides information to the services layer, which consists of the
applications that provide services to the city.

• Street Layer
o Sensors collect data and take action based on instructions.
o ICT connectivity relies on sensors for data collection and analysis.
o Magnetic sensors detect parking events by analyzing changes in the magnetic field.
o Lighting controllers adjust brightness based on time and ambient conditions.
o Air quality sensors measure gas and particulate matter concentrations.

• City Layer
o Network routers and switches are deployed to handle city data.
o This layer aggregates data from sensors and end-node networks.
o City layer must support multiple protocols for various IoT applications.
o Resiliency is crucial to ensure successful packet forwarding.
o Considerations for delay-sensitive and deterministic applications.

• Data Center Layer

o Data collected from sensors is processed and correlated in a data center.
o Derived information and trends help make informed decisions.
o Cloud infrastructure provides scalable and flexible storage and computing power.
o Multiple contractors can store and process data simultaneously.
o Cloud enables the exchange of information between smart systems.

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3. Briefly explain IoT strategy for Smarter cities. (7M)

answer:

• IoT Strategy for Smarter Cities

o Managing a city parallel managing a corporate enterprise, emphasizing
organization.
o Tools are emerging to enhance operational efficiency in increasingly efficient cities.
o Digitization revolutionizes the way cities view and approach their operations.
o New ideas continually surface, offering diverse solutions to management
challenges.
o Adapting to digital advancements empowers cities to optimize their management
practices.

• Vertical IoT Needs for Smarter Cities

o City management encompasses diverse approaches and solutions for urban
governance.
o Street-level sensors capture data on various aspects, from parking to water quality.
o Data analytics plays a significant role in reducing crime and enhancing traffic
management.
o Citizens leverage smart mobile devices to report issues and improve urban life.
o Smart solutions, when connected, positively transform the quality of life.

• Smart buildings
o Integration of HVAC and building infrastructure systems in smart buildings saves
costs.
o Potential for $100 billion savings in operating expenses through energy efficiency.
o Financial gains directly benefit city budgets for city-owned buildings.
o Reduced emissions positively impact the environment, benefiting the entire city.
o Smart building technologies offer significant financial and environmental
advantages.

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• Gas monitoring
o Gas monitoring offers $69 billion savings in meter-reading costs and accuracy.
o Financial gains evident for users and utility companies in city-managed utilities.
o Safety benefits from timely alerts in cases of consumption increases.
o Swift emergency response enhances safety in the urban environment.
o Gas monitoring provides cost savings and improved safety for all stakeholders.

• Smart parking
o Real-time visibility in smart parking creates a $41 billion opportunity.
o Residents benefit from identifying and reserving nearby parking spaces.
o Traffic wardens can enforce regulations and address noncompliant parking.
o Municipalities can implement demand-based pricing strategies to optimize parking
utilization.
o Smart parking improves efficiency, convenience, and revenue potential for cities.

• Water management
o Smart water management saves $39 billion by connecting household water meters.
o Real-time consumption visibility and leak detection improve efficiency and savings.
o Remote and automatic control of gates and pumps optimizes water flow.
o Vibration measurements enable equipment failure detection and predictive
maintenance.
o Proactive dispatch of repair teams prevents equipment failures and disruptions.

• Road pricing
o Implementing automatic payments in busy city zones generates $18 billion.
o Real-time traffic data enables proactive rerouting of public and private
transportation.
o Automatic payments improve overall traffic conditions and reduce congestion.
o Valuable and actionable information leads to efficient use of transportation services.
o Cities benefit from increased revenues and improved traffic management strategies.

• Global vs. Siloed Strategies

o Complexity of city operations, finance, regulations, and planning hinders
implementation.
o Cities often address infrastructure needs independently, causing fragmentation and
inefficiency.
o Siloed asset and service management in cities leads to isolation and duplication.
o Technological challenges include data collection, analysis, connectivity, and
aggregation.
o Presenting analysis to specialized personnel and city planners requires effective
communication.

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4. Explain Smart city security architecture.

Explain the IoT strategy for Smart cities.
answer:

• Data security is a major concern for smart cities.

• Cities must protect sensitive information from unauthorized access and tampering.
• City ownership of data increases citizen trust in security.
• Citizens' involvement in decision-making prevents misuse of data.
• Security architecture uses protocols to protect city data at each layer.
• Authenticating components and securing data transport are essential.
• Hijacking traffic sensors can cause dangerous congestion issues.
• Security architecture should evolve with technology and adhere to regional guidelines.
• Network partners may have their own compliance standards and security policies.

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5. Explain the following smart city use case examples.

(i) Connected Street Lighting (5M)
(ii) Smart Parking with advantages and disadvantages (5M)
(iii) Smart Traffic Control (5M)
(iv) Connected Environment (5M)
answer:

(i) Connected Street Lighting

Problem
• Street lighting is a major expense, accounting for up to 40% of a municipality's utility
bill.
• Maintaining street lights is challenging due to their large number and geographic
distribution.

Solution
• Cities seek solutions to reduce lighting expenses and improve efficiencies.
• Smart street lighting provides energy savings and additional service opportunities.
• LED technology leads the transition from traditional to smart street lighting.
• LEDs require less energy, have longer lifespans, and lower maintenance.
• Complete switch to LEDs can reduce individual light bills by 70%.

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(ii) Smart Parking with advantages and disadvantages

Comparison Advantages Disadvantges

Various parking sensors Diverse options for sensing Varying effectiveness and
available occupancy. cost.

In-ground magnetic Create accurate magnetic Limited installation

sensors detection fields. flexibility.
Video-based sensors Detect events through Higher resource
video analysis. requirements and potential
privacy concerns.
Radar sensors Reliable volumetric Limited accuracy in
detection of vehicle crowded environments.
presence.
Parking sensors rely on Easy installation without Limited battery life and
battery power expensive power lines. maintenance requirements.
Long-range LPWA Extended communication Potential limitations in data
protocols for larger outdoor range. transmission speed.
environments
Event-driven parking Efficient data collection Limited continuous
sensors based on detected events. monitoring capability.
Data transmission through Centralized data Dependence on network
city layer and cloud/fog management and analysis. connectivity and potential
applications data latency.
Applications for operator Real-time parking event Reliance on compatible
dashboards and smart visibility and user devices and connectivity.
phones interaction.
Support for city operators, Tailored experiences and Complex data aggregation
enforcement personnel, and improved parking and diverse user needs.
citizens management.

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(iii) Smart Traffic Control

• Traffic is one the most well-understood pain points for any city.
• It is the leading cause of accidental death globally, causes immense frustration, and
heavily contributes to pollution around the globe.
• A smart city traffic solution would combine crowd counts, transit information, vehicle
counts, and so on and send events regarding incidents on the road so that other
controllers on the street could take action.

• Video analytics sensor computes traffic events from video feed: Advantages: Accurate
traffic event detection without transmitting individual images.
• Events reach applications driving traffic services: Advantages: Enables traffic light
coordination and toll road license plate identification.
• Sensors recognize abnormal patterns and upload video to enforcement agencies:
Advantages: Enhanced detection of violations and improved traffic enforcement.
• Other sensors include Bluetooth vehicle counters and real-time speed counters:
Advantages: Real-time data collection and historical data analysis for trending.
• Communication techniques vary with sensor form factors: Advantages: Flexible wired
or wireless communication options for different applications.

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(iv) Connected Environment

• Dense urban areas experience spikes in dangerous gas molecules: Implications:

Increased health risks for densely populated regions due to air pollution.
• Over 90% of urban population breathes polluted air, causing health hazards:
Consequences: High pollutant levels contribute to a significant number of global
deaths.

• Multivendor sensors with various communication protocols are deployed at street layer.
• Connected environment sensors measure gases, weather, and noise levels.
• Sensors are integrated into urban fixtures and smart city infrastructure.
• Wearables and crowd sourcing contribute to global air quality information.
• Communication technologies vary based on sensor location and data collection.

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6. Describe the main parts of the Arduino UNO learning board with a neat
diagram.
answer:

• Microcontroller: The ATmega328p is the Arduino brain.

• Everything on the Arduino board is meant to support this microcontroller
o Digital pins- 0-13
o For input or output
o Apply 5v (HIGH)
o 0V (LOW)
• Arduino Uno: Popular microcontroller board for learning electronics and
programming.
• Versatile: Supports various sensors, actuators, and communication modules for
experimentation.
• Beginner-friendly: Simple syntax and extensive community support for easy learning.
• Open-source: Schematics, software, and libraries are freely available for
customization.
• Breadboard-friendly: Convenient layout for prototyping and connecting components.
• Cross-platform: Compatible with Windows, Mac, and Linux operating systems.
• Expansion capabilities: Multiple digital and analog pins for adding more
functionalities.
• Programming language: Uses Arduino IDE with C/C++ syntax for coding projects.
• Interactive learning: Provides hands-on experience in building electronic projects.
• Affordable: Cost-effective board suitable for educational purposes.

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7. Write a short note on

(i) Raspberry pi OS
(ii) Raspberry pi 2 model B and its GPIO
answer:
(i) Raspberry pi OS
• Raspberry Pi OS is a well-suited operating system for IoT applications when used with
Raspberry Pi single-board computers.
• It provides a lightweight and optimized Linux-based distribution that offers a user-
friendly environment for IoT development and experimentation.
• With its integration with Raspberry Pi's hardware capabilities, GPIO pin support, and a
range of pre-installed software, Raspberry Pi OS enables seamless IoT implementation
and prototyping.

Advantages
• Compatibility
o Raspberry Pi OS is specifically designed for Raspberry Pi boards, ensuring seamless
compatibility and optimal performance in IoT projects.
• Lightweight
o The OS is lightweight, allowing it to run efficiently on resource-constrained IoT
devices, making it suitable for a wide range of IoT applications.
• GPIO Pin Support
o Raspberry Pi OS provides full support for GPIO pins, enabling easy integration with
external components and sensors, facilitating IoT device interactions.
• Vast Software Repository
o Based on the Debian operating system, Raspberry Pi OS benefits from a vast
software repository, providing access to a wide range of applications and libraries
for IoT development.
• Community Support
o Raspberry Pi has a large and active community of developers, providing ample
resources, tutorials, and forums for IoT enthusiasts to seek assistance and share
knowledge.

Disadvantages
• Processing Power Limitation
o Raspberry Pi boards, although capable, may have limitations in processing power
compared to more powerful devices, which can impact the performance of resource-
intensive IoT applications.
• Limited Memory
o Depending on the Raspberry Pi model, the available RAM might be limited, which
can restrict the complexity and scale of IoT projects.
• Limited Storage
o Raspberry Pi boards typically have limited onboard storage, necessitating additional
external storage for storing large datasets or applications.
• Learning Curve
o While Raspberry Pi OS offers a user-friendly environment, beginners in the
Raspberry Pi ecosystem may require some time to learn and familiarize themselves
with the tools, programming languages, and hardware interfaces for IoT
development.

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 Internet of Things – (18CS81)

(ii) Raspberry pi 2 model B and its GPIO

• The Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is a popular single-board computer used in IoT
applications.
• With its GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pins, it enables seamless integration
with external components and sensors, making it a versatile platform for IoT
development and prototyping.

Advantages
• Processing Power
o The Raspberry Pi 2 Model B offers improved processing power compared to its
predecessors, allowing for more complex IoT applications and data processing.
• GPIO Pins
o It has a 40-pin GPIO header, providing a wide range of digital and analog
input/output options for connecting sensors, actuators, and other electronic devices
in IoT projects.
• Compatibility
o Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is compatible with a vast ecosystem of hardware add-ons
and software libraries, allowing for easy integration and expansion of IoT projects.
• Affordable
o Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is cost-effective, making it accessible for hobbyists,
students, and small-scale IoT deployments.
• Community Support
o There is a large and active community of developers and enthusiasts for Raspberry
Pi, providing ample resources, tutorials, and support for IoT projects.

Disadvantages
• Limited Processing Power
o While improved, the processing power of Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is still relatively
modest compared to more powerful devices, which can be a limitation for resource-
intensive IoT applications.
• Memory Limitation
o The onboard RAM of Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is limited, which can impact the
performance and scalability of memory-intensive IoT projects.
• Limited Storage
o It has limited onboard storage, requiring external storage solutions for storing large
datasets or applications in IoT deployments.
• Power Consumption
o Compared to low-power microcontrollers, Raspberry Pi 2 Model B consumes more
power, which can be a concern for battery-powered or energy-efficient IoT projects.

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 Internet of Things – (18CS81)

INDEX
MODULES PAGE NO
1 – Introduction to IoT 01 – 11
2 – Smart Objects 12 – 23
3 – IP for IoT as Network Layer 24 – 29
4 – Data and Analytics for IoT 30 – 38
5 – IoT Physical Devices and Endpoints 39 – 51

These above questions are the important questions for

Internet of Things (18CS81)
Examination is scheduled on 16th May 2023 at 2:00PM to 5:00PM
ALL THE BEST

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