A Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship

between two or more variables. It is a specific and testable

prediction on what you expect to happen with the variables in
your study. Usually, it proposes a possible relationship between
the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and
the dependent variable (what the research measures). It is also
described as an “educated guess” of what possibly the result
would be of your research, which should be supported on
existing theories and knowledge.
Furthermore, the hypothesis states a tentative answer to your
research question that can be tested by further investigation in
which you can support or refute it through scientific research
methods such as data collection and statistical analysis. It is the
central concept of any investigation that converts research
questions into predictions and incorporates elements such as
variables, population, and the relationship between factors.

Types of Research Hypothesis

1. Simple Hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two
variables, the independent variable and the dependent variable. It shows a
connection between one independent variable and a single dependent
variable
Ex: The higher the poverty rate in society (one independent
variable), the higher the number would be the out of school
youth (one dependent variable).

2. Complex hypothesis
The complex hypothesis reflects the relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable. It expresses a
connection between two or more independent variables and two or more
dependent variables
Ex: Eating more vegetables and fresh fruits (independent
variables) leads to boost immune system and enhance blood
circulation and digestion (dependent variables).

3. Empirical Hypothesis
An empirical hypothesis is also called as the “working hypothesis.”
It is presumed to explain certain facts and relationships of phenomena. It
comes to life when a theory is being put to the test, using observation and
 experiment. From the name itself “working,” it would mean that it can be
changed or replace anytime as soon as it is no longer supported or
accepted base on the observation and experimentation being done. It is
going through some trial and error and perhaps changing around those
independent variables
Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than plants watered
once a week. (Here, trial and error are leading to a series of findings).

4. Logical hypothesis
Logical hypothesis expresses explanation with limited evidence that
can be verified logically. It reflects a relationship of the variables which are
anchored based on logical phenomena. Sometimes, a logical hypothesis
can be turned into an empirical hypothesis in which you have to test your
theories and postulates.

Ex: Tomato plants bear fruit faster in Earth than in Moon. (Until we can test the soil
and plant growth in Moon's ground, the evidence for this claim will be limited, and the
hypothesis will only remain logical).

5; Statistical hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is an analysis of a portion of a population. It
can be verified statistically. The variables in a statistical hypothesis can be
transformed into quantifiable sub-variable to assess it statistically
Ex: If your research is about the psychosocial development of K-3
pupils of the private and public schools in the city, you would want
to examine every single K-3 pupil in the city. It is not practical.
Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical
hypothesis or a sample of the K-3 pupil population.

5. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is denoted with the symbol Ho It exists when you
consider that there is no relationship between the independent and
dependent variables or that there is an insufficient amount of information
to claim a scientific hypothesis (McLeod, 2020
Ex: There is no significant change in my health, whether I exercise every day or
not.

6. Alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is denoted with the symbol (H a). It is an
alternate statement expressed to be tested in order to generate the
desired output when the empirical or working hypothesis is not accepted.
In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, you tend to seek an
alternative hypothesis (McLeod, 2020).
 Ex: My health improves during the times when I sleep 8 hours a day
than sleeping for 4 hours only.

A Hypothesis can be classified as Directional and Non-directional

Hypothesis

1.Directional Hypothesis
The directional hypothesis relates the relationship between the variables and can also
predict its nature. It illustrates the direct association of the impact of the independent
variable with the dependent variable, whether it is positively or negatively affected.
The direction of the statement should be clear and justified according to the findings of
the study.
Ex: Students who are eating nutritious food have higher grades than students
not having a proper meal. (This shows that there is an effect between the grades and
nutritious food and the direction of effect is clear that the students got a higher grade).

2. Non-directional Hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no principle involved. It is a
premise that a relationship exists between two variables. However, the
direction of the effect is not specifically determined. It is a statement that
reflects the association of the independent variable to the dependent variable
without predicting the exact nature of the direction of the relationship.

Ex: There is a significant difference in the average grades between those

students that have proper nutritious meal and those that do not have proper
meals. (This depicts that there is an effect between the average grades and nutritious
food, but it does not reflect the direction of the effect whether it is positively or negatively
affected).

Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis

These guidelines must be observed in formulating your hypothesis.

1. Before writing your specific hypothesis, spend more time

researching about the topic you are interested in. Focus on
information and previous studies related to your topic.

2. Your independent variable and dependent variable must be included

in your hypothesis.
 3. The relationship of your variables must be reflected in your
hypothesis. Will your independent variable affect your dependent
variable?

4. Your hypothesis should be simple and specific as possible. If your

hypothesis is vague and complicated, it would be difficult to find the
answer to your question.

5. Your hypothesis should be concise and comprises clear and simple

language. Make it short and simple for it to be easily understood and
avoid any misconceptions or misunderstandings.

6. Your hypothesis should be testable without violating ethical

standards. It means that it could be investigated and measured
through a scientific method such as statistical analysis and data
interpretation.

7. Your hypothesis must be falsifiable. It means that your hypothesis

can be proven wrong through experiments or empirical data. There
are no absolute answers to research questions, but there is a
possibility of validating the hypotheses to be true beyond a
reasonable doubt.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of
research (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020). It evaluates, classifies and summarizes all the
relevant previous studies conducted on a specified topic. It is also designed to justify
your research by exposing the gaps of the previous studies.

Literature review plays a significant impact in the discussion of the results and
findings. The discussion of results and findings should focus on your research rather
than those of the other previous research. Hence, the literature review should be used
only in the discussion as support, evidence, and further explanation for your study.
These are the three (3) ways of using literature review in the discussion of your study:
a) providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas,
b) comparing your findings from other previous related studies, and
c) stating what contribution your study has made in the field.

Purpose of a Literature Review

The review of related literature is anchored on the following purposes.

1. To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of

 knowledge and to real-life situations.
2. To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your
research study and to learn from them.
3. To determine the relationship of your research with previous
research studies to prevent duplication and to acknowledge other
researchers.
4. To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research
questions.
5. To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study.
6. To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from
other research which might help you in formulating and justifying
your research ideas.
7. To clarify misconceptions on previous research and help
refocus, polish, and contribute to the development of the body of
knowledge.

Structure of Literature Review

This is how you are going to structure your review of related literature. The
main goal for doing this is to make the reader understand easily the different
studies and how they are relevant to your study.

1. Introduction
The introduction somehow presents the fundamental idea of the
particular study of the literature review.

2. Main Body
The main body consists of the organized discussion of sources. This
is where you summarize and synthesize your literature review and reflect
how they related to your study.

3. Conclusions/Recommendations
Conclusion and recommendation emphasize what you have learned
from reviewing the literature and where your study leads to.

Types of Literature Review

These are the different types of literature review according to Nueman

(2011). Following the type of literature review depends on how you organize and
 present your review of related studies.

1. Context review
From the name itself, context review is primarily focused on the content or contextual
aspect of research. Usually, it is a type of review in which the researcher relates his or
her study to a larger body of knowledge. It presents the current research by merging it
into a wider framework and determine its contribution and impact to the specific field
of study.

2. Historical review
Historical review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher
organizes the related research according to the period of time it was conducted.
Historical literature review focuses on probing research in a specified field throughout
a chronological order, which usually starts from the oldest period of time going to the
most recent studies. The goal of this type of research is to gain knowledge on the
advancement of technology and to identify developments on certain areas, which
progress through time.

3. Integrative review
Integrative review is a common type of literature review in which
the researcher introduces and summarizes the recent knowledge of the
study. It emphasizes the agreements and disagreements of knowledge
among various previous research. It also considers reviews, critiques, and
synthesizes representative literature in an integrated way in order to
generate new structure and viewpoint on the topic. This is the most
common form of literature review in the social sciences. This review is
usually merged with a context review.

4. Methodological review
Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in
which the researcher gathers, compares and contrasts other studies to the
current research. It basically summarizes and evaluates the strengths and
gaps in methodological aspects of various studies and illustrates the
effects of different methodologies (research designs, samples, process) to
different outcomes. This approach also emphasizes ethical issues when
necessary, which you should consider and be conscious of as you go
through your current research.

5. Self-study review
Self-study review is a literature review in which the researcher
demonstrates his or her understanding of a specific body of knowledge. It
contains existing proof associated to a clearly stated research questions
and uses standardized methods to determine and evaluate relevant
 research. However, it can also produce problems of prejudice especially
when it is used to summarize claims or statements linking his or her
findings to a system of knowledge. Typically, it is a practice in the
educational program or course requirement.

6. Theoretical review
Theoretical review is a literature review in which the researcher
introduces several theories or concepts that are focused on a specific
topic. It is particular on the theories and concepts being highlighted on
other researches and compares them to the current study basing on its
framework, hypothesis, consistency, and justification. The theoretical
literature review aids in establishing the theories already existed, the
relationships of theories among various studies, the degree of its
investigation, and the development of new hypotheses.

Type of Sources for a Literature Review

In doing a literature review, researchers must be acquainted with the
three (3) basic types of sources which are the general references, primary and
secondary sources.
General references are sources in which a researcher refers to tract down
other sources.
Primary sources are publications in which a researcher accounts the
findings of his or her investigations. Most primary sources are found in journal
articles.
Secondary sources are publications in which a researcher considers the
work of others (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020).

Where can you find the review of related literature?

As a researcher, you can find information about the research studies in
numerous formats such as books, scholarly journal articles, dissertations,
government documents, policy reports, and periodicals. Most researchers are
also presenting their findings during meetings, congress, and conventions of
professional societies and organizations. According to Nueman (2011), you can
find related literature in:
 1. Books
Books convey many forms of information. The needed information here is
from
the books containing a collection of research materials and articles. You
can find citation information on them such as the title, author, date, and
publisher in the catalog system.

2. Scholarly Journals
Scholarly journals may also be referred to as academic journals or
peer- reviewed journals. They are filled with peer-reviewed information of
research. Articles are written by a scholar in the field and the researcher is
always identified. List of the sources of the information like footnotes,
endnotes, and bibliography is always included. Typically, they contain an
advanced terminologies since the researcher uses technical language in
their field of study. The researcher assumes that the reader has a
background and basic understanding in the field of research.

3. Dissertations
Dissertation is a final requirement for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.) in which the student or researcher has to complete a
work of original research. Some dissertations are eventually published as
books or articles which consider their findings and contribution to the
academic discipline. Since dissertations are original research, they can be
a source of valuable information.

4. Government Documents
Most of the government agencies around the world support
research undertakings and publish the findings of the study. Government
documents are usually kept at the government and some school libraries.
These documents are rarely found in the catalog system. Assistance from
the librarian is needed for you to be able to locate these documents since
it is considered as specialized publications.

5. Policy Reports and Presented Papers

Policy reports are also a source of information in literature review. Policy
papers are not like the typical research papers. Usually, they are discussed to
non-academic readers. They may initiate by identifying an issue or phenomenon
that usually claim an answer and they are focused on being persuasive.

6. Periodicals
Periodicals are findings of the study which can be seen in
newspapers, in popular magazines, on television or radio broadcasts, and
in Internet news summaries. They are the chosen edited summaries done
by journalists for the general readers. They are deficient in numerous vital
details that are required to critically evaluate the study. Therefore, it is
 essential to supplement these information’s with other sources.

Steps in Writing Literature Review

1. Find/Search for the Relevant Literature
There are many ways on how to find relevant research studies. You
may use the following:
a. Search engines to facilitate your information inquiry. Make
sure that they are reliable.
b. University online library
c. Snowballing
d. Related dissertations

2. Log, Catalogue and Synthesize

After searching and gathering the different relevant studies, you need
to arrange them in order for you to organize them easily.
a. Log the reference information. You may use reference
management software.
b. Catalogue all relevant articles. You may use excel so that it will
be organize and systematic. You can make your own template
so that you will be efficient.
c. Digest and synthesize. Organize the different ideas from
different sources. Arrange them according to the criteria that
you made in your excel template. This would make the
connections of the different studies easier to identify.

3. Outlining and Writing Up

In-depth planning and enough time should be given importance during
this period since you will need to concentrate and have focus in writing up
your paper.
a. Draw up your outline. You need to make an outline first for the
structuring of your literature review. Thorough reading and
understanding should be done for you to be able to plan and
structure the ideas from your different sources. You can use
the different approaches like chronological, thematic,
theoretical, etc.
b. Write it up. After formulating the outline, you can now begin
writing your first draft. It is expected that your first draft is still
rough. Your second draft involves tightening up and improving
the flow. There would be several drafts needed for your paper
to be polished.
c. Recap. When you are finish with your paper, have it read by
others who are qualified (expert in the field) for further
improvements. Comprehend and incorporate their corrections
and suggestions for the betterment of your study. It is so much
 better if there will be more qualified people that can proof-
read your paper.
In-text Citation and Referencing Styles
Citation is a reference to a literature being used in your study. It is a way
of giving acknowledgement to the authors whom you have referred their
intellectual works and creativity as a support or foundation of your research.
Typically, citations include author’s name, date, publisher information, journal
information and/or DOI (Digital Objective Identifier) if present (Literature Review:
Citation Styles, nd).
From the name itself, an in-text citation is a reference made within the
body of text in the paper. It leads the reader to a source where a particular
information has been taken of. An in-text citation should be reflected when you
refer, paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another author. A corresponding
reference list must be provided at the end of the study as references or
bibliography.

A reference typically includes only the sources that you have mentioned or
cited in- text in your paper, while a bibliography is generally a list of all the
sources you use to generate your ideas about your research even if you have not
mentioned or cited them in your paper.