ATOMIC RADIATIONS Direct

*1. What is Atomic Radiation?

Atomic radiation refers to the energy emitted by atoms, typically in the form of electromagnetic waves
(like visible light, X-rays, or gamma rays) or particles (like alpha and beta particles). This happens when
electrons within an atom move between energy levels or when atomic nuclei undergo radioactive decay.

2. Types of Atomic Radiation**

a. Electromagnetic Radiation**

Electromagnetic radiation occurs when electrons transition between discrete energy levels within the
atom. The key types of electromagnetic radiation emitted include:

- **Visible light**: Emitted when an electron transitions between relatively low energy levels.

- **X-rays**: Produced when electrons in heavier elements transition between inner energy levels.

- **Gamma rays**: Released from nuclear transitions, where energy within the nucleus is released.

b. Particle Radiation**

Some atoms (particularly unstable, radioactive ones) emit particles such as:

- **Alpha particles**: Consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, commonly emitted by heavy nuclei like
uranium.

- **Beta particles**: High-speed electrons or positrons, produced during neutron-proton

transformations.

3. Line Spectra and Spectral Series**

*a. Line Spectra**

Atoms emit radiation at specific, discrete wavelengths when their electrons transition between fixed
energy levels. These emissions form a **line spectrum**, which is a set of distinct lines at particular
wavelengths, characteristic of each element.

b. Hydrogen Spectral Series**

The hydrogen atom, being the simplest atom, exhibits a well-known series of spectral lines, categorized
into different series based on the final energy level to which the electron transitions:

- **Lyman series**: Emission in the ultraviolet region (n = 1).

- **Balmer series**: Emission in the visible region (n = 2).

- **Paschen series**: Emission in the infrared region (n = 3).

- **Brackett and Pfund series**: Emission further into the infrared region (n = 4 and n = 5, respectively).

Each series corresponds to transitions from higher energy levels to a specific lower energy level
(designated as "n"). For example, in the **Balmer series**, electrons fall to the second energy level
(n=2), emitting visible light. The **Lyman series** involves transitions to the ground state (n=1),
emitting ultraviolet radiation.

4. Discrete and Continuous Spectra**

a. Discrete Emission Spectra**

In a **discrete emission spectrum**, an atom emits light only at specific wavelengths, resulting in bright
lines against a dark background. This occurs when electrons in excited atoms return to lower energy
states, emitting photons with precise energies (or wavelengths). The positions of these lines are unique
for each element, forming the basis of **atomic spectroscopy**.

*b. Continuous Emission Spectra**

A **continuous spectrum** consists of light emitted across a wide range of wavelengths without
interruption. This is typically produced by objects like hot, dense solids or liquids (e.g., the spectrum
from a glowing filament in a light bulb). Unlike the line spectrum, a continuous spectrum shows no gaps
between wavelengths.

*5. Mechanisms of Radiation by Atoms**

a. Excitation and De-excitation**

- **Excitation**: When an atom absorbs energy (from heat, electricity, or other sources), an electron
may jump from a lower energy level to a higher one, putting the atom into an excited state.

- **De-excitation**: When the electron falls back to a lower energy state, the atom emits radiation in
the form of a photon, which corresponds to the energy difference between the two levels. This emitted
radiation appears as part of the atom’s line spectrum.

#### **b. Photon Emission**

The energy of the emitted photon is given by the difference in energy levels:

\[

E_{\text{photon}} = E_{\text{initial}} - E_{\text{final}}

\]

Using Planck’s equation, the energy of the photon is related to its frequency:

\[

E = h \nu

\]

where \( h \) is Planck’s constant, and \( \nu \) is the frequency of the emitted radiation.

### **6. Radioactivity and Nuclear Radiation**

Some atoms are unstable and undergo **radioactive decay**, emitting radiation in the form of alpha
particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. This type of radiation arises from changes within the atomic
nucleus, unlike the electron transitions that produce electromagnetic radiation.

**7. Applications of Atomic Radiation**

- **Medical Imaging**: X-rays and gamma rays are commonly used for diagnostic imaging (like X-rays
and CT scans).

- **Radiation Therapy**: High-energy radiation is used to kill cancerous cells in treatments.

- **Nuclear Energy**: The energy released by nuclear fission or fusion involves atomic radiation,
powering nuclear reactors.

- **Spectroscopy**: The analysis of atomic spectra helps identify the composition of substances.

*8. Safety and Radiation Protection**

Atomic radiation, particularly ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, and particle radiation), can damage
living tissue. Protective measures include limiting exposure time, increasing distance from the radiation
source, and using shielding materials like lead.

9. Famous Theories and Laws**

- **Bohr Model**: Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels and
only emit radiation when transitioning between these levels.

- **Planck’s Law**: Describes how the energy of emitted radiation is quantized, with each photon
carrying energy proportional to its frequency.
- **Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle**: This principle limits the precision with which we can know
certain properties (like position and momentum) of particles like electrons, influencing how we
understand atomic transitions and radiation.

Conclusion

Radiation by atoms is a fundamental phenomenon that explains much of the behavior of matter and
energy in the universe. By studying how atoms emit and absorb radiation, scientists can understand the
atomic structure, apply it in technology and medicine, and explore the deeper principles of quantum
mechanics.

9. Famous Theories and Laws

Several key theories and laws are essential for understanding radiation by atoms:

*a. Bohr Model**

Niels Bohr's model of the atom (1913) is a cornerstone of atomic physics. He proposed that electrons
orbit the nucleus in specific, fixed energy levels or "shells." According to Bohr, electrons can only occupy
certain allowed orbits without radiating energy. However, when an electron jumps from a higher energy
level to a lower one, it emits a photon of radiation. The energy of this photon corresponds to the
difference between the two energy levels.

This model successfully explained the line spectra of hydrogen and formed the basis for understanding
atomic radiation:

- **Quantized orbits**: Electrons can only occupy certain discrete energy levels.

- **Photon emission**: Radiation occurs when an electron moves from a higher to a lower orbit

However, the Bohr model has limitations and is primarily effective for explaining hydrogen-like atoms.
More complex atoms require a quantum mechanical approach.

#### **b. Planck’s Law**

Max Planck's work on blackbody radiation laid the foundation for quantum theory. Planck proposed that
energy is quantized, meaning that atoms can only emit or absorb energy in discrete amounts, called
"quanta."
Planck’s law relates the energy of a photon to its frequency:

\[

E = h \nu

\]

where \( E \) is the energy of the photon, \( h \) is Planck’s constant, and \( \nu \) is the frequency of the
radiation. This equation explains why the energy of emitted radiation is related to the specific frequency
(or color) of light in the atom's line spectrum. The quantization of energy was a revolutionary concept
that helped explain phenomena like atomic spectra and blackbody radiation.

**c. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle**

Werner Heisenberg introduced the uncertainty principle, a key aspect of quantum mechanics. This
principle states that it is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of a particle, such
as an electron, simultaneously. The more precisely one property is known, the less precisely the other
can be measured.

Mathematically, the uncertainty principle is expressed as:

\[

\Delta x \cdot \Delta p \geq \frac{h}{4\pi}

where \( \Delta x \) is the uncertainty in position, \( \Delta p \) is the uncertainty in momentum, and \
( h \) is Planck’s constant

The uncertainty principle is significant in atomic physics because it places limits on how accurately we
can predict the behavior of electrons in atoms. This affects how we understand their energy levels and
transitions between them, which in turn influences the radiation emitted by atoms.

These theories and laws form the foundation of modern atomic physics, explaining how and why atoms
emit radiation in the form of light or particles. The concepts of quantized energy levels, the quantization
of radiation, and the inherent uncertainty in atomic behavior have shaped the development of quantum
mechanics and our understanding of atomic radiation.