Fluid Mechanics-I

Teacher/Instructor :Engr. Muhammad Sumair

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering (UET Lahore 2014-2018)

M.Sc. Thermal Power Engineering (UET Lahore 2018-2020)
 Surface Tension
• Surface Tension: Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting
on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface
between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves
like a membrane under tension. It is denoted by Greek letter σ (called
sigma). Its SI units is N/m.
• This pulling force (that causes this tension) acts parallel to the surface
and is due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid.
• Consider two liquid molecules, one at the surface and one deep within
the liquid body. The attractive forces applied on the interior molecule
by the surrounding molecules balance each other.
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
• But the attractive forces acting on the surface molecule are not
symmetric, and the attractive forces applied by the gas molecules
above are usually very small. Therefore, there is a net attractive force
acting on the molecule at the surface of the liquid, which tends to pull
the molecules on the surface downward. Thus, the free surface of the
liquid acts like a very thin film under tension.

Fig.1. (a)Demonstration of attractive forces acting on two molecules, (b) consequence of surface tension
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
• The effect of surface tension may be easily seen in the case of tubes of
smaller diameters, open to the atmosphere. For example, when a glass
tube of small diameter is dipped in water, the water rises up in the tube
with an upward concave surface as shown in Fig. 2 (a). But when the
same tube is dipped in mercury, the mercury depresses down in the
tube with an upward convex surface as shown in Fig. 2(b).
• For the purposes of all calculations, relating to Hydraulics, Fluid
Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, the effect of surface tension is
generally neglected. But the surface tension has got its own
importance in a variety of ways. As a result of surface tension, the
liquid surface has a tendency to reduce its surface as small as possible.
That is why the falling drops of rainwater become sphere.
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)

Fig.2. Demonstration of surface tension for water and mercury

 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
Table 1. Surface tension values for some common fluids
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
• It is important to mention that surface tension determines the size of
the liquid droplets that form. A droplet that keeps growing by the
addition of more mass will break down when the surface tension can
no longer hold it together. This is like a balloon that will burst while
being inflated when the pressure inside rises above the strength of the
balloon material.
• Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension: The surface tension of a
liquid, in general, decreases with increase in temperature. This is
understood by the fact that the intermolecular forces in liquid decrease
with increase in temperature. As the intermolecular forces are
responsible for the surface tension, thus, surface tension also decreases
with rise in temperature.
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
• Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet: Consider a small spherical
droplet of a liquid of diameter “d”. On the entire surface of the droplet,
the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.

Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say
left half) will be
(i) The tensile force due to surface tension acting around the
circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 3 (b) and this is equal
to
 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
(ii) pressure force on the area (shown in Fig.3(c)). These two forces will
be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, i.e.,

• In terms of diameter, we can write

4𝜎𝑠
∆𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑑

Fig.3. Forces on droplet

 Surface Tension (Cont’d)
• Surface Tension on Hollow Bubble: A hollow bubble (like a soap
bubble in air) has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other
outside. Thus, two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such
case, we have

• In terms of diameter, we can write

8𝜎𝑠
• ∆𝑃𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑑

Fig.4. Difference between droplet and bubble

 Capillarity
Capillary Effect: Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall
of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level
of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid
surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is
known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of
liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter
of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
• Expression for Capillary Rise: Consider a glass tube of small
diameter “d” opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water.
The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid.
 Capillarity (Cont’d)
Let h = height of the liquid in the tube.
Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is balanced
by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the
surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
 Capillarity (Cont’d)

For equilibrium

• The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is approximately

equal to zero and hence cos θ is equal to unity. Then rise of water is
given by
 Capillarity (Cont’d)

Fig.6. (a) Capillary rise for water , and (b)

capillary fall for mercury
 Capillarity (Cont’d)
• Expression for Capillary Fall: If the glass tube is dipped in mercury,
the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of
the outside liquid as shown in Fig.6 (b)
• Let h = Height of depression in tube.
• Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the
tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward
direction and is equal to 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos θ .
• Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to
intensity of pressure × Area
 Capillarity (Cont’d)

• It shows that the capillary rise or fall is given by the same expression.
• Value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128°.
 Capillarity (Cont’d)
• Wetting and Non-wetting Fluids: It is commonly observed that
water in a glass container curves up slightly at the edges where it
touches the glass surface; but the opposite occurs for mercury i.e., it
curves down at the edges.
• The phenomenon of capillary effect can be explained microscopically
by considering cohesive forces (the forces between like molecules,
such as water and water) and adhesive forces (the forces between
unlike molecules, such as water and glass). The liquid molecules at the
solid–liquid interface are subjected to both cohesive forces by other
liquid molecules and adhesive forces by the molecules of the solid.
 Capillarity (Cont’d)
• The relative magnitudes of these forces determine whether a liquid
wets a solid surface or not. Obviously, the water molecules are more
strongly attracted to the glass molecules than they are to other water
molecules, and thus water tends to rise along the glass surface. The
opposite occurs for mercury, which causes the liquid surface near the
glass wall to be suppressed.

Fig.7. Wetting vs Non-wetting fluids

 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• Before discussing the phenomenon of cavitation, let us recall some
thermodynamic concepts related to saturation temperature and
saturation pressure. It is well-established that temperature and pressure
are dependent properties for pure substances during phase-change
processes, and there is one-to-one correspondence between
temperatures and pressures.
• At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a
given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. At an absolute pressure of 1
standard atmosphere (1 atm or 101.325 kPa), for example, the
saturation temperature of water is 100°C. Conversely, at a temperature
of 100°C, the saturation pressure of water is 1 atm.
 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation (Cont’d)
• The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure
exerted by its vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature. Pv is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be
identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv= Psat)
• It is also established that vapor pressure increases with temperature.
Thus, a substance at higher temperatures boils at higher pressures. For
example, water boils at 134°C in a pressure cooker operating at 3 atm
absolute pressure, but it boils at 93°C in an ordinary pan at a 2000-m
elevation, where the atmospheric pressure is 0.8 atm. A mini table for
water is given next for easy reference.
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation (Cont’d)
 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation (Cont’d)
• The reason for our interest in vapor pressure is the possibility of the
liquid pressure in liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor
pressure at some locations, and the resulting unplanned vaporization.
For example, water at 10°C will flash into vapor and form bubbles at
locations (such as the suction sides of pumps) where the pressure
drops below 1.23 kPa.
• The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles since they form
“cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they are swept away from the low-
pressure regions, generating highly destructive, extremely high-
pressure waves. This phenomenon, which is a common cause for drop
in performance and even the erosion of impeller blades, is called
cavitation, and it is an important consideration in the design of
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation (Cont’d)

Figure 1: Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by 23-mm

aluminum sample
 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation (Cont’d)
• Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour
bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid
falls below its vapour pressure and the sudden collapsing of these
vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour
bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created.
• Cavitation must be avoided (or at least minimized) in flow systems
since it reduces performance, generates annoying vibrations and noise,
and causes damage to equipment. The pressure spikes resulting from
the large number of bubbles collapsing near a solid surface over a long
period of time may cause erosion, surface pitting, fatigue failure, and
the eventual destruction of the components or machinery. The
presence of cavitation in a flow system can be sensed by its
characteristic tumbling sound.
 Numerical Problems
Problem 1:The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is
0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2
greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet
of water. (Ans: 1.45 mm)
Problem 2: The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04
mm is 10.32 N/cm2 (atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure
within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.
(Ans:11.045 N/cm2)
 Numerical Problems (Cont’d)
Problem 3: Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube
of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The
temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of
water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and
0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that
for mercury is 130°. Take density of water at 20°C as equal to 998
kg/m3. (Ans: (i) 7.51 mm, (ii)-2.46 mm)
Problem 4: Find the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to
measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to
2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575
N/m. (Ans: 1.5 cm)
Thanks for Listening