Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Memory and its

types and structure
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

• Volatile: Data is lost when power is turned off.
• Fast access: Directly accessible by the CPU.
• Types:
• Random Access Memory (RAM): Temporary storage used by the CPU to hold data that is
being processed.
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Needs to be refreshed periodically.
• Static RAM (SRAM): Faster and does not need to be refreshed, used for cache memory.
• Cache Memory: A small, faster type of volatile memory that provides high-speed data
access to the CPU. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions.
• Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory that stores permanent data or
instructions. It's used to store firmware.
• Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable PROM (EPROM), and Electrically Erasable PROM
(EEPROM): Variants that can be programmed and erased.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

2. Secondary Memory (Storage)

• Non-volatile: Retains data even when the power is off.
• Slower access: Not directly accessible by the CPU; data must be transferred to
RAM first.
• Types:
• Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Traditional magnetic storage, offering large capacity at lower cost.
• Solid State Drives (SSD): Faster than HDDs, using flash memory for storage.
• Optical Discs: Such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, which use laser technology to read and
write data.
• Flash Drives/USB Drives: Portable flash memory storage devices.
• Magnetic Tapes: Used for archival storage due to their large capacity and durability.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

3. Tertiary Memory (Off-line Storage)

• Used for backup and archival purposes, not typically accessed by the CPU
directly.
• Types:
• External Drives: Portable storage devices like external HDDs/SSDs.
• Cloud Storage: Online storage services accessed via the internet.
• Backup Tapes: Large-capacity magnetic tapes used for long-term storage.

4. Virtual Memory
• A technique that allows the system to use secondary memory as if it were part of
the main memory. This helps extend the apparent size of the system's memory.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of RAM
1.Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
• Characteristics:
1. Volatile: Loses data when power is off.
2. Structure: Stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit.
3. Refresh Requirement: Capacitors leak charge, so the data needs to be refreshed periodically,
typically thousands of times per second.
4. Usage: Commonly used as the main memory in computers due to its higher density and lower
cost compared to SRAM.
• Types of DRAM:
• Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): Synchronized with the system clock, allowing for more efficient
data transfer. It's the standard form of DRAM used in most computers.
• Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM): An evolution of SDRAM that can transfer data on both
the rising and falling edges of the clock signal, effectively doubling the data rate. Subsequent
generations include DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, each offering increased speed and reduced
power consumption.
• Graphics DDR (GDDR): A type of DDR memory optimized for graphics cards, with versions like
GDDR3, GDDR5, and GDDR6.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of RAM
2.Static RAM (SRAM):
• Characteristics:
• Volatile: Data is lost when power is off.
• Structure: Uses a flip-flop circuit for each bit, typically made from four to six transistors. This
structure does not require refreshing.
• Speed: Faster than DRAM because it does not need to be refreshed.
• Usage: Used in cache memory and other applications where speed is critical, but the memory
size is smaller.
• Advantages: Faster and more reliable than DRAM.
• Disadvantages: More expensive and consumes more power compared
to DRAM.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of RAM
3.Video RAM (VRAM):
• Characteristics:
• Specialized Type: Specifically designed to store image data for computer displays.
• Dual-Ported: Can be accessed by both the CPU and the display hardware simultaneously,
allowing for faster rendering of images.
• Usage: Commonly used in graphics cards.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of RAM
4.Other Types:
• Embedded DRAM (eDRAM): DRAM integrated directly onto the same chip as the processor
or other circuitry. Used in high-performance systems like gaming consoles.
• Magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM): Uses magnetic states rather than electrical charges to
store data, offering the potential for faster speeds and lower power consumption.
• Ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM): Uses a ferroelectric layer to achieve non-volatility, offering a
combination of speed and endurance with non-volatile characteristics.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• Structure of RAM
• Memory Cells:
• DRAM: Consists of a transistor and a capacitor for each bit of data. The capacitor holds a charge
(representing a '1') or no charge (representing a '0').
• SRAM: Each bit is stored in a flip-flop made of four to six transistors. This structure is stable as
long as power is supplied, with no need for refreshing.
• Addressing:
• Memory cells are organized in a matrix (rows and columns).
• Row and Column Address: Each cell is accessed via a unique address formed by the
combination of row and column signals.
• Data Lines (Buses):
• Data Bus: Transfers data to and from the RAM.
• Address Bus: Specifies the address of the data being read from or written to.
• Control Bus: Carries control signals that manage the operations of reading and writing data.
• Memory Modules:
• DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module): A module with separate electrical contacts on each side,
commonly used in desktops.
• SO-DIMM (Small Outline DIMM): A smaller form factor used in laptops and other compact
devices.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• Transistors in DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

1.MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors):
• Usage: DRAM uses a single MOSFET (typically an n-channel MOSFET) for each memory cell.
• Structure of a DRAM Cell:
• Transistor (MOSFET): Acts as a switch that controls access to the capacitor.
• Capacitor: Stores the actual data bit as an electrical charge (charged for a 1, discharged for a 0).
• Operation:
• Read/Write Process: When the MOSFET is turned on by a control signal, the charge stored in the
capacitor can be read or modified.
• Refreshing: The charge in the capacitor leaks over time, so the data must be periodically
refreshed by reading and re-writing it. This is managed by the DRAM controller.
• Advantages: High density and lower cost per bit compared to SRAM, making DRAM suitable
for main memory (RAM) in computers.
• Disadvantages: Slower than SRAM and requires refreshing, which consumes power.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• Transistors in SRAM (Static RAM):

1.MOSFETs (usually CMOS technology - Complementary Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor):
• Usage: SRAM cells typically use six MOSFETs per memory cell.
• Structure of an SRAM Cell:
• Four Transistors (Two Cross-Coupled Inverters): These form a flip-flop, which is a bistable
circuit that can hold one bit of data (either 0 or 1) as long as power is supplied.
• Two Additional Transistors: These transistors act as access switches, controlling the
connection of the flip-flop to the bit lines during read and write operations.
• Operation:
• Stable Storage: The flip-flop remains stable in either of its two states (representing a 0 or 1)
without the need for refreshing, as long as power is maintained.
• Read/Write Process: The two access transistors are controlled by the word line. When the word
line is activated, the data in the flip-flop can be read or written.
• Advantages: Faster than DRAM, does not require refreshing, and is more reliable.
• Disadvantages: Lower density and higher cost per bit compared to DRAM, leading to larger
physical size for the same amount of memory. SRAM is typically used in cache memory,
where speed is critical.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

1. Mask ROM (MROM):
• Characteristics:
• Permanently Programmed: Data is written during the manufacturing process and cannot be
altered afterward.
• Usage: Used in applications where the content is fixed and doesn’t need to be updated, such as
in older consumer electronics.
• Advantages: Reliable and secure, as the data cannot be modified.
• Disadvantages: Inflexible, since any errors or updates require manufacturing new chips.
2. Programmable ROM (PROM):
• Characteristics:
• User-Programmable: Initially blank and can be programmed by the user once.
• Programming Process: A special device called a PROM programmer is used to "burn" the data
into the PROM by blowing fuses within the chip.
• Advantages: Allows for customization after manufacturing.
• Disadvantages: Once programmed, it cannot be reprogrammed or erased.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):
• Characteristics:
• Erasable and Reprogrammable: Can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) light through a
quartz window on the chip, and then reprogrammed using a special device.
• Usage: Often used during development and testing phases.
• Advantages: Flexibility to erase and reprogram multiple times.
• Disadvantages: Requires a UV light source for erasure, which can be inconvenient.
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):
• Characteristics:
• Electrically Erasable: Can be erased and reprogrammed using electrical signals, one byte at a
time, without needing to remove the chip from the circuit.
• Usage: Commonly used in BIOS chips, microcontrollers, and other applications where data
might need to be updated.
• Advantages: More convenient than EPROM since it can be reprogrammed in-circuit.
• Disadvantages: Slower to erase and write compared to flash memory.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

5. Flash Memory:
• Characteristics:
• Advanced EEPROM: Can be erased and reprogrammed in larger blocks, making it faster and
more efficient for applications requiring frequent updates.
• Usage: Widely used in USB drives, SSDs, memory cards, and other portable storage
devices.
• Advantages: Fast, reliable, and can be erased and reprogrammed many times.
• Disadvantages: Typically has a limited number of write/erase cycles, though this limit is
very high.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• Structure of ROM
1.Memory Cells:
• ROM memory cells are typically arranged in a matrix of rows and columns. Each cell stores a
single bit of data, which is either a '0' or '1'.
• Transistors and Diodes: These are used in various configurations to represent and read the
stored data. The presence or absence of a connection in each memory cell determines the stored
value.
2.Address Decoder:
1. This component selects the specific memory cell to read based on the input address. It decodes
the binary address provided to access the corresponding data stored in the ROM.
3.Data Bus:
1. The data bus transfers the read data from the ROM to the CPU or another device. The width of the
data bus determines how many bits can be read from the ROM at once.
4.Control Lines:
1. Control signals manage the reading process. In most cases, ROM chips include signals like Chip
Enable (CE), Output Enable (OE), and Write Enable (WE) (for programmable ROM types).
5.Programming Elements (for programmable types):
1. PROM: Includes fusible links that can be selectively blown to represent data.
2. EPROM: Uses floating-gate transistors that can be charged or discharged using UV light.
3. EEPROM/Flash Memory: Employs floating-gate transistors that can be electrically charged or
discharged.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• How ROM Works

• Mask ROM: The data is hardcoded during fabrication. It’s like a blueprint etched
into the chip.
• PROM: Data is programmed by selectively burning fuses within the chip.
• EPROM: Data is erased by UV light and reprogrammed by charging the floating-
gate transistors.
• EEPROM and Flash Memory: Data is erased and written by applying specific
electrical signals to charge or discharge the floating-gate transistors.
• Types of Transistors Used in ROM: Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):

• Usage: Used in older ROM designs, especially in early Mask ROM and some PROMs.
• Characteristics:
• BJTs are three-layer devices (NPN or PNP) that use a small input current at the base to control a
larger current between the collector and emitter.
• They were commonly used before the advent of more efficient MOSFETs.
• Advantages: Fast switching speeds and high current capabilities.
• Disadvantages: Higher power consumption compared to MOSFETs, leading to heat
generation.
2. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs):
• Usage: Most modern ROM types, such as Mask ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and Flash memory,
use MOSFETs.
• Characteristics:
• MOSFETs are the most common type of transistors in digital circuits. They have a gate, source, and
drain. The voltage applied to the gate controls the current between the source and drain.
• In ROM, MOSFETs are used to control the flow of current in memory cells, representing binary data
(0s and 1s).
• Advantages: Low power consumption, high density (allowing for more transistors on a chip),
and the ability to operate at high speeds.
• Disadvantages: Sensitive to static electricity, which can damage them if not handled properly.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• Types of Transistors Used in ROM:

3. Floating-Gate MOSFETs (FGMOS or simply FETs):
• Usage: Found in programmable and erasable ROM types, such as EPROM, EEPROM, and Flash
memory.
• Structure:
• Floating Gate: An additional gate that is isolated by a thin oxide layer. The charge stored on the
floating gate determines the state of the transistor (whether it represents a 0 or a 1).
• Control Gate: Used to control the operations of the transistor (e.g., reading, writing, erasing).
• Functionality:
• Programming: Involves applying a high voltage to change the charge on the floating gate, altering the
transistor's threshold voltage.
• Erasing (in EPROM): For EPROMs, UV light is used to remove the charge from the floating gate. For
EEPROMs and Flash memory, electrical signals are used to erase the charge.
• Advantages: Non-volatility (retains data without power), reprogram ability, and suitability for
high-density memory applications.
• Disadvantages: Limited write/erase cycles (especially in Flash memory), though this limit is
typically very high.
 Mohamed Abdallah Elghzaly

• How Transistors Work in ROM:

• Binary Data Storage:
• Each memory cell in a ROM typically consists of a single transistor. The state of the transistor
(on or off) represents a binary 1 or 0. For instance, in a Mask ROM, a transistor might be
connected (conductive) or disconnected (non-conductive) to represent a bit of data.
• Address Decoding:
• Transistors are also used in the address decoding circuitry of the ROM, helping to select the
correct memory cell based on the input address.
• Programming and Erasing (for Programmable ROMs):
• In programmable ROMs like EEPROM and Flash memory, transistors are used to modify the
stored data by altering the charge on the floating gate.