UNIT-III

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

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PAN(Personal Area Network)
o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

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 o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

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 o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Hardware and Software components in networking

In networking, there are various hardware and software components that work together to
facilitate communication and data transfer between devices. Here are some key components:

Hardware Components:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC): It is a hardware component that allows a device to connect to
a network. It provides the physical interface between the device and the network medium (e.g.,
Ethernet cable or wireless signal).
2. Switches: Switches are devices that enable the connection of multiple devices within a local
area network (LAN). They receive data packets and forward them to the appropriate
destination device based on MAC addresses.
3. Routers: Routers are devices responsible for connecting multiple networks together, such as
LANs and the Internet. They use IP addresses to direct network traffic between different
networks and determine the optimal path for data transmission.

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4. Modems: Modems are used to connect a computer or network to an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) via various mediums like DSL, cable, fiber, or satellite. They modulate and demodulate
signals between the digital format used by computers and the analog signals transmitted over
the communication medium.
5. Firewalls: Firewalls are security devices that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules. They help protect networks from
unauthorized access and potential threats.
6. Network Cables: Ethernet cables, such as Cat5e or Cat6, are commonly used to establish
wired connections between devices and network infrastructure. Fiber optic cables are used for
high-speed and long-distance data transmission.

Software Components:

1. Network Operating System (NOS): NOS is the software that manages and controls network
operations. It provides features like network protocols, security mechanisms, and device
management capabilities.
2. Network Protocols: Protocols define the rules and conventions for communication between
devices on a network. Examples include Internet Protocol (IP), Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
3. Network Management Software: This software is used to monitor and manage network
devices, troubleshoot network issues, and perform tasks such as configuration, performance
optimization, and security management.
4. Network Services: Network services are software applications that provide specific
functionality within a network, such as Domain Name System (DNS) for name resolution,
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) for IP address assignment, and File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) for file sharing.
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN) Software: VPN software enables secure remote access to a
private network over a public network infrastructure, such as the Internet. It encrypts data
traffic to ensure privacy and confidentiality.

Network communication standards in networking

There are various network communication standards used in networking, depending on the
type of network and the protocols being used. Some of the common standards are:

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1. Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used standard for LAN (Local Area Network) communication.
It defines how data is transmitted over a network using a wired connection.
2. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless communication standard that uses radio waves to transmit data
between devices. It is used for LAN communication and is commonly used in homes and
offices.
3. TCP/IP: TCP/IP is a set of protocols that are used for communication between devices over
the Internet. It defines how data is transmitted, how devices are addressed, and how data is
routed between networks.
4. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard that is used for short-range
communication between devices. It is commonly used for connecting devices such as
smartphones, laptops, and speakers.
5. USB: USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a standard for connecting devices to a computer. It is
commonly used for connecting peripherals such as printers, keyboards, and cameras.
6. HTTP: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol for transmitting data over
the Internet. It is commonly used for transmitting web pages and other resources.
7. FTP: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol for transferring files over the Internet.
It is commonly used for uploading and downloading files to and from a server.
8. DNS: This is a protocol that allows domain names (such as google.com) to be translated into
IP addresses that computers can use to communicate with each other.
9. SMTP: This is a protocol used for sending email messages over the Internet.

Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is Wireless.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any device
to any other device.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

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Piconet:

 Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes.
 Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance
of 10 meters.
 The communication between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or
one-to-many. Possible communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-
slave communication is not possible.
 It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation
in communication unless it gets converted to the active state.

Scatternet:

 It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act
as master or we can say primary in another piconet.
 This kind of node can receive a message from a master in one piconet and deliver the
message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a master.
 This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two
piconets.

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1.Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It
defines the physical characteristics of bluetooth transceiver. It defines two types of physical
link: connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: It performs the connection establishment within a piconet.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established
links. It also includes authentication and encryption processes.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption protocol layer: It is also known as the heart of the
bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower layers of the
bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into the form
expected by lower layers. It also performs the segmentation and multiplexing.
5. SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows to discover the services
available on another bluetooth enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides serial interface with
WAP and OBEX.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange objects
between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Wi-Fi:
 WiFi is a universal wireless networking technology that utilizes radio frequencies to
transfer data. WiFi allows high-speed Internet connections without the use of cables.
 The term WiFi is a contraction of "wireless fidelity" and commonly used to refer to
wireless networking technology.
 The WiFi Alliance claims rights in its uses as a certification mark for equipment
certified to 802.11x standards.
 WiFi is a freedom – freedom from wires. It allows you to connect to the Internet from
just about anywhere — a coffee shop, a hotel room, or a conference room at work.

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  What’s more – it is almost 10 times faster than a regular dial-up connection. WiFi
networks operate in the unlicensed 2.4 radio bands, with an 11 Mbps (802.11b) or 54
Mbps (802.11a) data rate, respectively.
 To access WiFi, you need WiFi enabled devices (laptops or PDAs). These devices can
send and receive data wirelessly in any location equipped with WiFi access.

OSI model
ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a model
for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a
complete communication system. They are:

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OSI Model Layer 1: The Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over
network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

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OSI Model Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by
this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.

OSI Model Layer 3: The Network Layer

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

OSI Model Layer 4: Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this
layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

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OSI Model Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and
are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.

OSI Model Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will
understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail
services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application
layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent
data.

Merits of OSI reference model

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

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Demerits of OSI reference model

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

TCP/IP Reference Model

 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol with the help of which, protocol
implementation over the network can be achieved.

 The TCP/IP model also has a layered architecture which allows easy data
communication along with the facility of integrating multiple protocols. The layout
remains similar to OSI Model but the number of layer, their functionalities and
properties got changed.
 This Internet Model(TCP/IP) comprises of only four layers as compared to seven layers
of OSI Model. These four layers are generated by combining the layers of OSI model
internally so that protocols can be implemented. These layers have fixed positions too
and their positions cannot be altered.
 Application Layer, Transport Layer, Internet Layer and Network Access Layers are the
four layers of TCP/IP Model.

Architecture And Layers : TCP/IP Reference Model

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a) The Network Access Layer
 The Network Access Layer of TCP/IP reference model is also known as the Host-to-
Host or Host-to-Network layer as it is responsible for performing roles of the Physical
Layer along with the functions of Data Link Layer.
 Data in the form of bits received in the Network Access Layer are connected in the form
of data packets to Internet Layer.
 Network Access Layer = Data Link Layer + Physical Layer.
 It includes protocols such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi

b) The Internet Layer

 Internet layer is also called Network Layer which is responsible for establishment of
connection to send or receive data packets between multiple users or nodes or devices or
networks. This layer is placed on the 2nd position from bottom.
 The Internet Layer en-routes the data packets from source to destination through the
process of routing with the help of various routing techniques and routing protocols.
 The main protocol at this layer is IP (Internet Protocol).

c) The Transport Layer

 The Transport Layer performs the same functions and have similar features as that in
OSI Model.
 The functionality of Transport Layer is, it provides end to end data transfer by using the
technique of connection oriented services between sender and receiver with the help of
various protocols.
 It includes protocols such as TCP and UDP.

d) The Application layer

 The Application Layer resides on the top of the TCP/IP reference model as line in OSI
Model. The functionality of Application Layer of TCP/IP reference model is to provide
interface between users and the applications.
 In some cases depending upon the requirements, it can perform the functions of Session
Layer(to provide sessions) and Presentation Layer(data representation).
 Application Layer = Session Layer + Presentation Layer + Application Layer .
 Protocols at this layer include HTTP, SMTP, FTP, and Telnet.

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Advantages : TCP/IP Reference Model
 Use of protocols implementation and their support.
 Each layer has its definite structure and functionality which makes OSI model simple
and easy to use.
 Use of layered architecture.

Disadvantages : TCP/IP Reference Model

 As some layers has multiple functionalities, it is more complex than OSI Model where
each layer has separate functions and services.
 The TCP/IP reference makes use of protocols. But, in case of replacement of any
protocol, difficulty and issue might arise.

Network Topologies: The pattern of inter connection of computers in a network is

called Network Topology.

Types of Topologies:
1. Star Topology:
All the computers are connected to a central Node using a single path.

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Advantages of Star Topology:
• Easy access for service or reconfiguration of the network.
• One device per connection, failure of single connection involves disconnecting the nodes
from the network.
• Centralized control – Central node is connected directly to every node in the network
means faults are easily detected and corrected in the network.
• Simple access Protocols: In Star network access protocols are very simple.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:
• As each node is connected directly with the central node it requires separate network cable
for the connection thus long cable length is required.
• Star topology network is difficult to expand.
• It is central node dependency.
2. Bus Topology:
This consists of a single length of the transmission medium on to which various nodes are
attached. The topology is used in traditional communication network where the host at one end
of the bus communicates with several terminals attached along its length.
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Advantages:
 Short cable length is needed.
 Resilient Architecture.
 Easy to extend.
Disadvantages:
 Fault diagnosis is difficult.
 Fault isolation is difficult
 Repeater reconfiguration is necessary.
 Nodes must be intelligent.
3. Ring Topology:
In this topology all the nodes are connected to each other in a circular path. Data is accepted
from one of the neighboring nodes and is transmitted onwards to another.

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Advantages:
• Short Cable Length
• No wiring closet space required.
• It is suitable for optical fibers.
Disadvantages:
• Node failure causes network failure
• Difficult to diagnose the fault.
• Network reconfiguration I difficult.
4.Tree Topology:
Tree Topology is a topology which is having a tree structure in which all the computers are
connected like the branches which are connected with the tree. In Computer Network, tree
topology is called as a combination of a Bus and Start network topology. The shape of network
is that of an inverted tree with the central root branching and sub branching to the extremities
of the network.

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Tree topology is best suited for the applications which have a hierarchical flow of data and
control. Since the tree topology is a modification of a pure network topology, bus topology, it
is a hybrid topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology:
 It uses point to point wiring for individual segments.
 It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.
Disadvantages of the Tree Topology:
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
5.Mesh Topology:
A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer and network device are
interconnected with one another. This topology setup allows for most transmissions to be
distributed even if one of the connections goes down. It is a topology commonly used for
wireless networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a
mesh topology.

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Advantages of a mesh topology:
• Manages high amounts of traffic because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
• A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
• Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
• Each connection can carry its own data load. • It is robust and provides security and
privacy.
• Fault diagnosis is easy.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology:
• The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.

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• Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
• The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.
• Bulk wiring is required.
LAN Cables
A LAN cable is a conductor that connects devices in a Local Area
Network (LAN) with a network connector. The network cable provides
communication between several devices (computers, routers, switches…).
The term “LAN” is an overtake for Ethernet cable.

It was created in the 1970s by the XEROX Company. Universities and

laboratories were dependent on the interconnection of their computers and
terminals already at that time. Employee Robert Metcalfe wanted all
computers to be able to print from XEROX’s new laser printer. The local
area network was born.

A lot has happened since the early days of LAN technology. We have
already explained in more detail which standards exist today, which
categories of cables, and which plug-in technologies are used and what an
Ethernet cable is.

What is a LAN cable used for and how?

First and foremost, such a LAN cable is used to connect devices within a
network. It is a physical plug connection. Basically, any data cable that is
used for communication between end devices can be called a network cable.

Some of them are particularly suitable for short distances. Their design
can be particularly space-saving so that they can also be used in confined
areas. Others are designed for longer distances or outdoor use.

However, all of these serve only one purpose: to connect devices to each
other with a network connector. In addition to computers, routers or servers,
peripheral devices such as printers or IP cameras also form part of the
network.

For this purpose, a LAN cable is connected to a terminal device. The data
reaches the other end device via a LAN distributor. Of course, this must also
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 be integrated into the network.

Connectors
A connector is the unique end of a plug, jack, or edge of a card that
connects to a port. For example, all desktop computer expansion cards have
a connector that allows them to connect in a slot on the motherboard. When
referring to cables, the connector is the end of the cable that connects to a
port. For example, the end of a USB cable has a connector to connect to a
USB port.

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Wireless network adapter

The network adapter allows the device to communicate over the local area
network (LAN), connecting to the internet or to other computers.

Wireless network adapters, such as those on laptop computers and tablets, take the
computer's signals and convert them into radio waves that transmit via antenna
(visible or hidden). The radio frequency signals are actually electromagnetic waves
that vibrate as they travel through the air on the appropriate bands or frequencies.
The frequencies usually tend to be 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, with 14 channels available.
The radio waves go to routers and then broadband modems or internal networks.

The adapters for desktop computers typically come preinstalled. If a desktop

doesn't offer a preinstalled adapter, a card can connect to the PCMCIA slot or a
mini PCI slot. Likewise, old desktop computers may allow a retrofitted Ethernet
adapter that plugs into a PCI slot. Some electronic cards even fit into a memory
card port. As another option, a USB style Ethernet adapter complies with both
desktop and laptop computers, or into an Ethernet port using an Ethernet network
cable, as was common at colleges and universities in the recent past.

Anti-Magnetic mat

Alternatively referred to as a grounding mat, an antistatic mat is a floor or table

mat that reduces the risk of electrostatic discharge while working with electrostatic
sensitive equipment. The picture shows an example of a laptop being repaired by a
technician. The blue mat under this laptop is an antistatic mat.

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Anti-Magnetic Gloves

Crimping Tool

Crimping is a way of joining pieces of metal or other ductile material by

deforming one or both of the pieces to hold the other, and this deformity is known
as the "crimp". A crimping tool is the tool used to deform the material and create
the connection.

Crimping is commonly used in electrical work, to attach wires together or wire to

other connectors. "Crimp connectors" is the general name for the fittings that
attach to the wire using this method, which usually have an insulated sleeve
attached to a metal connector. The purpose of the crimping tool is to form a secure
connection that is properly sealed from any gas or moisture, preventing shortages
or faulty electrical connections.

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 Crimping is also used in manufacturing, by mechanics and engineers who crimp a
wide range of different things.

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What types of crimping tool are there?

There are many different types of crimping tools, all with

different uses. Here are the main types:

Bootlace crimping tool

Designed to crimp bootlace ferrules/crimps, which are metal tubes attached to a

colour-coded insulation collar.

They're often used in screw terminals to stop multiple core wires from splitting
and can handle a range of popular wire sizes.

Choose a high leverage one, such as the Maun Bootlace Ferrule Crimper, to get
a good crimp without tiring out your hand. You can also choose the plier
version to crimp a wider range of sizes.

Thin cable precision crimping tool

When you're working with thin cables, you don't have much margin for error,
which is why traditional hand crimping tools can create problems.

The solution to this is to use a crimping tool with a ratchet feature, such as this
one, that helps to control the crimp to remove human error from the process,
ensuring a good crimp every time, even with smaller cables.

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Crimping tool for QM & IP68 connectors

These tools are designed to crimp QM connectors and IP68 connectors, which are
ideal for mains control lead connections, as well as small transmission systems.

This tool can handle QM connectors up to 24 AWG wire size and IP68 connectors
up to 28 AWG wire size, making it a versatile choice.

Crimping tool for splice connectors

If you're looking to crimp splices, either gel-filled or butt splice connectors, then
you need a proper tool for it, as opposed to a generic crimping tool.

This Scotchlok™ Crimping Plier handles both Scotchlok™ 8A and 8B splice

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 connectors, and has a return spring to make it easier to handle.

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Crimping tool for coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line used to carry high-frequency signals,

such as broadband internet, and has an inner conductor cable surrounded by a
conducting shield, making it difficult to crimp.

Crimping tools for this type of cable tend to come in different categories
depending on the coaxial cable impedance (calculated in Ohms Ω), so make sure
to get one that matches your cable type.

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Cable Tester

A cable tester is a device used to test the strength and connectivity of a particular
type of cable or other wired assemblies. There are many different types of cable
testers. Each of them can test a specific type of cable or wire (some can test
different types of cables or wires). A cable tester can test whether a cable or wire
is set up properly, connected correctly, and the communication strength between
the source and destination. The picture is an example of a cable tester from
TRENDnet.

For computers, one of the most common types of cable testers used is for testing
Cat 5, Cat 5e, and Cat 6 network cables. Because so many different types of data
are transmitted over a network cable, a proper connection needs to be established
between the computer and server. Also, make sure the signal strength is adequate
for transmitting data and that there is no outside interference. A cable tester can
test for these factors and verify the network cables connections are correct and
work for the intended purpose.

Loop back plug

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 A loopback plug is a device used to test ports (such as serial, parallel USB and
network ports) to identify network and network interface card (NIC) issues.
Loopback plug equipment facilitates the testing of simple networking issues and is
available at very low costs. A loopback plug device is classified as male or female.

A loopback plug is also known as a loopback adapter or loopback cable.

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Toner probe

Network Cable Toner and Probe Kits are used for finding electrical cables such as
internet cables, phone lines, speaker wires, and ethernet wires in a house or
building. They allow you to find cables by tracing electrical signals back to their
sources.

They work like fax machines. Cables transfer data in two ways: electrical pulses
that indicate whether or not they are working properly (good signal), or break-off
signals indicating they have been cut or broken (no signal). The tester sends out an
electrical pulse, which then bounces back when it reaches a cable.

The device will pick up on these pulses and display them on its screen so you
can see where your cables are located. In order to use a network toner and probe
Kit, plug one end of your device into an outlet or power strip, then connect your
cable to the other end of your device using a coaxial connector or BNC
connector.
Now plug the other end of your cable into another outlet or power strip using
another coaxial connector or BNC connector. Then turn on both devices at once
to start searching for cables.

Step 1: Plug the tone generator part of a cable tester into the patch panel RJ45 port
that is connected to either a CAT5 or CAT6 network cable.

Step 2: To locate the other end of the cable, take your tone tracer to the place
where you think it might be.

Step 3: Place the tone tracer tool on each port until it produces a beeping sound.
When this happens, that is the port to which the other end of the cable being traced
is connected.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 33

Punch down tool

A punch down tool, also called a krone tool, is a hand tool used to connect
telecommunications and network wires to a patch panel, punch down block,
keystone module, or surface mount box. The "punch down" part of the name
comes from punching a wire into place using an impact action. It consists of a
handle, a spring mechanism, and a removable slotted blade.
When the punch down tool connects a wire, the blade cuts off the excess wire.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 34

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 35
Protocol analyzer

The network protocol is a set of rules that regulates the communication and
exchange of data over the internet or network. Both the sender and receiver should
follow the same protocols in order to communicate and exchange the data.
Whenever we access a website or exchange some data with another device, then
these processes are governed by a set of rules called the internet protocols.
Working:
The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into small
parts called packets. Each large data is broken down into small packets and then
sent between two network devices by the underlying hardware and software. When
the packets arrive at their destination, they are reassembled into the original.
Each network protocol defines the rules for how its data packets must be organized
in a specific way according to the protocols the network supports.

Protocol Analyzer:

A protocol analyzer is a tool that helps you to monitor the network traffic and
analyze its behavior. It can be used for troubleshooting, detecting security issues,
or monitoring network performance. The main purpose of protocol analyzers is to
help us in understanding how packets are being transmitted over a network. It as
is a hardware or software tool used to capture and analyze the data over a
communication channel by which two or more devices communicate with each
other. Its main function is to capture digital data on the communication channel
that two or more devices use to communicate with each other and convert the
digital data bits into an information protocol sequence. Communication channels
vary from the local computer buses to satellite links.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 36

Type of Protocol Analyzer:

As mentioned above, a protocol analyzer is a hardware or software tool.

Therefore, there are two kinds of protocol analyzers in the industry.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 37

Multi meter

multimeter is an electronic tool used to measure voltage, amps and resistance

across circuits.By attaching two leads to different parts of an electrical system,
professionals can use multimeters to detect levels of voltage and resistance, or
changes in electrical currents.

This tool may also be known as a volt-ohm meter or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM)

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 38

 UNIT-IV
Network addressing:
Network addressing is a method of identifying and communicating with devices on a
computer network. It involves assigning a unique address to each device, which enables
data to be sent and received between devices on the network.

There are two main types of network addressing:

1.Internet Protocol (IP) addressing and

2.Media Access Control (MAC) addressing.

IP Addressing
 IP Address is short for Internet Protocol Address.
 It is a unique address assigned to each computing device in an IP network.
 ISP assigns IP Address to all the devices present on its network.
 Computing devices use IP Address to identify and communicate with other devices in the
IP network.

Types Of IP AddressIP Addresses may be of the following two types

1. Static IP Address-
 Static IP Address is an IP Address that once assigned to a network element always
remains the same.
 They are configured manually.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 39

  Some ISPs do not provide static IP addresses.
 Static IP Addresses are more costly than dynamic IP Addresses
2. Dynamic IP Address
 Dynamic IP Address is a temporarily assigned IP Address to a network element.
 It can be assigned to a different device if it is not in use.
 DHCP or PPPoE assigns dynamic IP addresses.
IP Address Format
IP Address is a 32 bit binary address written as 4 numbers separated by dots.
The 4 numbers are called as octets where each octet has 8 bits.
The octets are divided into 2 components- Net ID and Host ID.

1. Network ID represents the IP Address of the network and is used to identify the network.
2. Host ID represents the IP Address of the host and is used to identify the host within the
network.
IP Address Example
Example of an IP Address is
00000001.10100000.00001010.11110000 (Binary Representation)
OR
1.160.10.240 (Decimal Representation)

What is MAC Address?

o MAC address is the physical address, which uniquely identifies each device on a given
network. To make communication between two networked devices, we need two
K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 40
 addresses: IP address and MAC address. It is assigned to the NIC (Network Interface
card) of each device that can be connected to the internet.
o It stands for Media Access Control, and also known as Physical address, hardware
address, or BIA (Burned In Address).
o It is globally unique; it means two devices cannot have the same MAC address. It is
represented in a hexadecimal format on each device, such as 00:0a:95:9d:67:16.
o It is 12-digit, and 48 bits long, out of which the first 24 bits are used for OUI(Organization
Unique Identifier), and 24 bits are for NIC/vendor-specific.
o It works on the data link layer of the OSI model.
o It is provided by the device's vendor at the time of manufacturing and embedded in its NIC,
which is ideally cannot be changed.
o The ARP protocol is used to associate a logical address with a physical or MAC address.

Format of MAC address

As we have already discussed in the above section, we cannot assign the MAC address to the
device's NIC; it is preconfigured by the manufacturers. So, let's understand how it is configured
and what format is selected.

o It is 12 digits or 6-byte hexadecimal number, which is represented in colon-hexadecimal

notation format. It is divided into six octets, and each octet contains 8 bits.
o The first three octets are used as the OUI or Organisationally Unique Identifier. These
MAC prefixes are assigned to each organization or vendor by the IEEE Registration
Authority Committee.
o Some example of OUI of known vendors are:
CC:46:D6-Cisco
3C:5A:B4-Google,Inc.
3C:D9:2B-HewlettPackard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 41

 The MAC address can be represented in below three formats:

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 42

Types of MAC address

There are three types of MAC addresses, which are:

1. Unicast MAC Address

2. Multicast MAC address
3. Broadcast MAC address

Unicast MAC address:

The Unicast MAC address represents the specific NIC on the network. A Unicast MAC address
frame is only sent out to the interface which is assigned to a specific NIC and hence transmitted to
the single destination device. If the LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an address is set
to zero, the frame is meant to reach only one destination NIC.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 43

Multicast MAC Address:
Multicast addresses enables the source device to transmit a data frame to multiple devices or
NICs. In Layer-2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, LSB (least significant bit) or first 3 bytes of the
first octet of an address is set to one and reserved for the multicast addresses. The rest 24 bits are
used by the device that wants to send the data in a group. The multicast address always starts with
the prefix 01-00-5E.

Broadcast MAC address

It represents all devices within a Network. In broadcast MAC address, Ethernet frames with ones
in all bits of the destination address (FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF) are known as a broadcast address. All

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 44

these bits are the reserved addresses for the broadcast. Frames that are destined with MAC address
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF will reach every computer belong to that LAN segment. Hence if a source
device wants to send the data to all the devices within a network, that can use the broadcast
address as the destination MAC address.

Classful Addressing:
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for
multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determine

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 45

the classes of IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
 Network ID
 Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns IP address to each device that is connected to its network.

Class A:
IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in first
octet are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in
any network. The default subnet mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
 2^7-2= 126 network ID(Here 2 address is subtracted because 0.0.0.0 and 127.x.y.z are
special address. )
 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.x.x.x – 126.x.x.x

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 46

Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from medium-sized to
large-sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The
remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used to determine
the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total
of:
 2^14 = 16384 network address
 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110.
The remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used to
determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C has a total of:
 2^21 = 2097152 network address
 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.

Class D:

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 47

 IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher order bits of
the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110. The remaining
bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.

Class E:
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have
any sub-net mask. The higher order bits of first octet of class E are always set to 1111.

Classless Addressing:
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is another name for classless addressing. This addressing
type aids in the more efficient allocation of IP addresses. This technique assigns a block of IP
addresses based on specified conditions when the user demands a specific amount of IP
addresses. This block is known as a "CIDR block", and it contains the necessary number of IP
addresses.
When allocating a block, classless addressing is concerned with the following three rules.
 Rule 1 − The CIDR block's IP addresses must all be contiguous.
 Rule 2 − The block size must be a power of two to be attractive. Furthermore, the block's
size is equal to the number of IP addresses in the block.
 Rule 3 − The block's first IP address must be divisible by the block size.

For example, assume the classless address is 192.168.1.35/27.

 The network component has a bit count of 27, whereas the host portion has a bit count of 5.
(32-27)

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 48

  The binary representation of the address is: (00100011 . 11000000 . 10101000 . 00000001).
 (11000000.10101000.00000001.00100000) is the first IP address (assigns 0 to all host bits),
that is, 192.168.1.32
 (11000000.10101000.00000001.00111111) is the most recent IP address (assigns 1 to all
host bits), that is, 192.168.1.63
 The IP address range is 192.168.1.32 to 192.168.1.63.
Difference Between Classful and Classless Addressing
 Classful addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that divides them into five
categories. Classless addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that is intended to
replace classful addressing in order to reduce IP address depletion.
 The utility of classful and classless addressing is another distinction. Addressing without a
class is more practical and helpful than addressing with a class.
 The network ID and host ID change based on the classes in classful addressing. In classless
addressing, however, there is no distinction between network ID and host ID. As a result,
another distinction between classful and classless addressing may be made.

What is IP Address?
The address through which any computer communicates with our computer is simply called
an Internet Protocol Address or IP address .
Types of IP Address
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
IPv4
IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address and the host address. It stands
for Internet Protocol version four. It was introduced in 1981 by DARPA and was the first
deployed version in 1982 for production on SATNET and on the ARPANET in January 1983.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in Decimal Notation. It is
represented by 4 numbers separated by dots in the range of 0-255, which have to be converted
to 0 and 1, to be understood by Computers. For Example, An IPv4 Address can be written
as 189.123.123.90.

IPv4 Address Format

IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary digits separated by a dot (.).

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 49

 IPv4 Address Format

IPv6
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was first introduced in
December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force. IP version 6 is the new version of Internet
Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4 in terms of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is
written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It can be written as 128
bits of 0s and 1s.

IPv6 Address Format

IPv6 Address Format is a 128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group of 8 hexadecimal

numbers separated by colon (:).

IPv6 Address Format

Benefits of IPv6
The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here are some of the
mentioned benefits:

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 50

  Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4, which is required for
expanding the IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128 bit IP Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-
bit Address.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in with it. IPv6 offers
security like Data Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here, an Internet Connection is
more Secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler and more effective
header Structure, which is more cost-effective and also increases the speed of Internet
Connection.
 Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS features, which helps
in increasing traffic over websites and increases audio and video quality on pages.
 Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better support for Mobile
Devices. It helps in making quick connections over other Mobile Devices and in a safer way
than IPv4.

SUBNETTING

Subnetting is a technique used in computer networking to divide a large IP network into smaller
subnetworks called subnets. It allows for efficient use of IP addresses and helps in organizing and
managing network resources effectively.

When subnetting, you start with a network address and borrow some bits from the host portion of
the IP address to create the subnet portion. The number of borrowed bits determines the number of
subnets and the number of hosts per subnet that can be created.

Here are the steps involved in subnetting:

1. Determine the required number of subnets: Assess the network's needs and decide how many
subnets are necessary.
2. Determine the number of hosts per subnet: Determine the number of devices or hosts that each
subnet needs to accommodate.
3. Choose a subnet mask: Select a subnet mask that provides enough address space for the required
number of subnets and hosts per subnet. The subnet mask consists of a series of 1s followed by a
series of 0s.
4. Calculate the subnet bits: Determine the number of bits required for the subnet portion of the IP
address. This is based on the number of subnets you determined in step 1.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 51

5. Calculate the host bits: Determine the number of bits remaining for the host portion of the IP
address. This is based on the subnet mask you chose in step 3.
6. Determine the subnet addresses: Calculate the subnet addresses by incrementing the subnet bits
starting from 0. Each subnet will have its own subnet address.
7. Determine the host addresses: Calculate the range of host addresses available within each subnet.
Typically, the first address in the range is reserved for the network address, and the last address is
reserved for the broadcast address. The remaining addresses are available for hosts.

TCP/IP addressing scheme

In networking, the TCP/IP addressing scheme refers to the method of assigning unique addresses
to devices connected to a TCP/IP-based network. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) is the fundamental protocol suite used for communication on the internet and most local
area networks (LANs).

The TCP/IP addressing scheme uses IP addresses to identify devices on a network. There are two
versions of IP addresses: IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6).

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 52

1. IPv4 Addressing: IPv4 addresses are 32-bit addresses represented in dotted-decimal format, such
as 192.168.0.1. The address consists of four octets (8 bits each), separated by periods. IPv4
addresses are further divided into different classes, which include:
 Class A: The first octet represents the network portion, and the remaining three octets represent
the host portion. Class A addresses have the first bit set to 0 and allow for a large number of
networks with a large number of hosts per network.
 Class B: The first two octets represent the network portion, and the remaining two octets represent
the host portion. Class B addresses have the first two bits set to 10 and allow for a moderate
number of networks with a moderate number of hosts per network.
 Class C: The first three octets represent the network portion, and the last octet represents the host
portion. Class C addresses have the first three bits set to 110 and allow for a large number of
networks with a small number of hosts per network.
 Class D: Class D addresses are used for multicast addresses.
 Class E: Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes.

IPv4 addresses are limited in number and have been largely exhausted due to the growth of the
internet. To address this limitation, IPv6 was introduced.

2. IPv6 Addressing: IPv6 addresses are 128-bit addresses represented in a hexadecimal format, such
as 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. The longer address length of IPv6 allows for a
significantly larger number of unique addresses compared to IPv4. IPv6 addresses are divided into
multiple segments and can be further classified into different types, including:
 Global Unicast Address: Similar to IPv4 public addresses, these are routable addresses on the
internet.
 Link-Local Address: These addresses are used for communication within a single network
segment.
 Unique Local Address: These addresses are similar to private IPv4 addresses and are used for
local communication within an organization or site.
 Multicast Address: These addresses are used for multicast communication.

IPv6 adoption is gradually increasing, and it is expected to replace IPv4 as the dominant protocol
in the future due to its vast address space.

In both IPv4 and IPv6, IP addresses are used to uniquely identify devices on a network and enable
communication between them.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 53

 Components of Ip address and Classes

In networking, an IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a numerical label assigned to each

device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address consists of two main components: the network address and the host address. The division
of these components depends on the IP address class.

There are five IP address classes: A, B, C, D, and E. However, the D and E classes are reserved
for special purposes and not commonly used for regular network addressing. The network classes
A, B, and C are the most commonly used and have the following components:

1. Network Address: The network address identifies the network to which the IP address belongs. It
represents the network portion of the IP address and is used for routing packets across networks.
The length of the network address portion varies depending on the IP address class:
 Class A: The first octet (8 bits) represents the network address.
 Class B: The first two octets (16 bits) represent the network address.
 Class C: The first three octets (24 bits) represent the network address.
2. Host Address: The host address identifies a specific device (host) within the network. It
represents the unique address assigned to a device on the network. The length of the host address
portion also varies depending on the IP address class:
 Class A: The last three octets (24 bits) represent the host address.
 Class B: The last two octets (16 bits) represent the host address.
 Class C: The last octet (8 bits) represents the host address.

It's worth noting that the network and host address components are used together to form a
complete IP address. For example, in a Class C network, an IP address might look like this:
192.168.0.1. Here, "192.168.0" represents the network address, and "1" represents the host
address.

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 54

K.MAHESH BABU 9110390203 Page 55