The Z-Transform

Introduction
A linear system can be represented in the complex frequency domain (s-domain where s =  + j) using the
LaPlace Transform.

x(t) y(t) = x(t) * h(t)

h(t)
H(s)
X(s) Y(s) = X(s)H(s)

Where the direct transform is:


Lx(t ) = X (s ) =  x(t ) − st dt
t =0

And x(t) is assumed zero for t ≤ 0

The Inversion integral is a contour integral in the complex plane (seldom used, tables are used instead)
1  + j
L−1X ( s) = x(t ) =  X (s ) st ds
2j s =  − j 

Where  is chosen such that the contour integral converges.

If we now assume that x(t) is ideally sampled as in:
x(t, Ts)
y(t)
x(t) Sample Re-Sample Reconstruct
(Ts sec.) Analog (Ts sec.)
System
Where:
x n = x (n * Ts ) = x(t ) t =n*T
s

and
y n = y (n * Ts ) = y (t ) t =n*T
s

Analyzing this equivalent system using standard analog tools will establish the z-Transform.

Sampling
Substituting the Sampled version of x(t) into the definition of the LaPlace Transform we get

Lx(t , Ts ) = X T (s ) =  x(t , Ts ) − st dt
t =0

But

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
x(t , Ts ) =  x(t ) * p (t − n * Ts )
n=0 (For x(t) = 0 when t < 0 )
Therefore
   
X T (s ) =   x(n * Ts ) *  (t − n * Ts ) − st dt
t =0
 n =0 
Now interchanging the order of integration and summation and using the sifting property of -functions
 
X T (s ) =  x(n * Ts )  (t − n * Ts ) − st dt
t =0
n=0


X T (s ) =  x(n * Ts ) − nTs s
n=0 (We are assuming that the first sample occurs at t = 0+)
if we now adjust our nomenclature by letting:
X ( z ) = X T (s ) z = sT
z = sT , x(n*Ts) = xn , and

X ( z ) =  xn z − n
n =0

Which is the direct z-transform (one-sided; it assumes xn = 0 for n < 0).

The inversion integral is:

c X ( z )z
1
2j 
n −1
xn = dz
(This is a contour integral in the complex z-plane)
(The use of this integral can be avoided as tables can be used to invert the transform.)
To prove that these form a transform pair we can substitute one into the other.
1  − n  k −1
xk =  c  xn z  z dz
2j  n = 0 
Now interchanging the order of summation and integration (valid if the contour followed stays in the region
of convergence):
1 
xk = 
2j n = 0
xn  c z k − n −1dz

If “C” encloses the origin (that’s where the pole is), the Cauchy Integral theorem says:

 z k − n −1dz = o for n  k
c 2j for n = k

And we get xk = xk Q.E.D

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An Example
Find the z-transform of
 n − k = io if n  k
if n = k This is the “Unit Pulse” at n = k (assume k > 0)

(z ) =   n − k z − n
n=0

(z ) = z − k (Note: dividing by z is equivalent to a delay of one sample time)

A Short Table of z-Transforms

f(t) Region of
F(z)
(sampled) Convergence
z
U(t) |z| > 1
z −1
n-k z −k |z| > 1
Tz
t |z| > 1
(z − 1)2
T 2 z ( z + 1)
t2 |z| > 1
(z − 1)3
z
at |z| > at
z −  aT
z * sin(T )
sin(t) |z| > 1
z − 2 z * cos(T ) + 1
2

z * z − cos(T )
|z| > 1
z − 2 z * cos(T ) + 1
cos(t) 2

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Properties of the z-Transform

The z-transform has properties that are analogous to those of the LaPlace Transform. The following table
has some of the more useful ones listed.


where C is a closed contour
that includes z=0
Signal z-Transform

Superposition 
Time Shifting 




Time 
inversion
Time (convolution)
Convolution
Frequency 
Differentiation

Summation

You should familiarize yourself with these as they will be used, along with the table of transforms to move
between time series and the z-domain.

Finding the Inverse z-Transform

There are three common ways to find the time series, xn when X(z) is given:
1. Infinite Series – done by dividing out the rational polynomial in z
2. Partial Fraction Expansion – Same as in LaPlace
3. The Inversion Integral – a contour integral in the complex z-plane

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F (z ) =
2z
Example: (z − 2)(z − 1)2 , determine fn
A. By Infinite Series

F (z ) =
2z
z − 4 z 2 + 5z − 2
3

Now divide (long division) with the polynomials written in descending powers of z
2z-2+8z-3+22z-4+52z-5+114z-6+…
Z3-4z2+5z-2|2z
2z-8+10z-1-4z-2
8-10z-1+04z-2
8-32z-1+40z-2-16z-3
22z-1-36z-2+016z-3
22z-1-88z-2+110z-3-44z-4
52z-2-094z-3+044z-4
52z-2-208z-3+260z-4-104z-5
114z-3-216z-4+104z-5

F ( z ) =  f n z − n = 2z - 2 + 8z -3 + 22z - 4 + 52z -5 + 114z - 6 + 
 n=0

And the time sequence for fn is

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 …
fn 0 0 2 8 22 52 114 …

Note that this method does NOT give a closed form for the answer, but it is a good method for finding the
first few sample values or to check out that the closed form given by another method at least starts out
correctly.

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B. By Partial Fraction Expansion

F (z ) =
2z kz kz kz
= 1 + 2 + 3 2
(z − 2)(z − 1) z − 2 z − 1 (z − 1)
2

To find k1 multiply both sides of the equation by (z-2), divide by z, and let z→2
2z k z ( z − 2 ) k3 z ( z − 2 )
= k1 z + 2 +
(z − 1)2
z −1 (z − 1)2
2 k ( z − 2 ) k3 ( z − 2 )
= k1 + 2 +
(z − 1)2
z −1 (z − 1)2
2 k2 ( z − 2 ) k (z − 2)
= k1 + + 3
(z − 1)2 z =2
z − 1 z = 2 (z − 1)2 z = 2
or
k1 = 2
Similarly to find k3 multiply both sides by (z-1)2, divide by z, and let z→1

k (z − 1)
2
+ k2 (z − 1) + k3 z
2
= 1
(z − 2) z − 2 Equation A
And
k3 = -2
Finding k2 requires going back to Equation A above and taking the derivative of both sides

k (z − 1)
2
+ k2 (z − 1) + k3 z
2
= 1
(z − 2) z − 2
2  2( z − 1) 2(z − 1)2 
− = − +k
(z − 2)2 1  z − 2 (z − 2)2  2
k

Now again let z→1

k2 = -2

F (z ) =
2z 2z 2z
− −
 z − 2 z − 1 (z − 1)2

C. Using the Inversion Integral

TBD
H.W. Find the inverse z-Transform of
z (z 2 − 2 z − 1)
F (z ) =
(z 2
+ 1)
2

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We can check the answer by putting the three terms over the common denominator

F (z ) = 2 z
(z − 1)2 − (z − 1)(z − 2) − (z − 2)
(z − 1)(z − 2)2
z 2 − 2 z + 1 − z 2 + 3z − 2 − z + 2
F (z ) = 2 z
(z − 1)(z − 2)2
F (z ) = 2 z
1
(z − 1)(z − 2)2 It checks out!

J. N. Denenberg Copyright DTS November 16, 2020