THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE OF NATUROPATHIC Course Requirements:

MEDICINE This is a compulsory course. In view of this, students are expected

to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of
Couse Code: BMS101 70% attendance in the virtual classes to be able to write the final
Course Title: Human Structure and Pathophysiology I examination.
Course Unit: ___
Lecture Schedule: as detailed on the timetable
Recommended Guide:
Lecture Duration: 1 hour, 30 minutes
Disclosed by the school administrative on
Course Details: admission/resumption.
Lecturers: Prof O.T Olaniyan
[email protected]
Following the classes with the materials provided endeavour to
Miss B.A Olukade attend alternative to practical classes too.
[email protected]

Course Outlines:
 Biological Foundations
 Basic Word Structure, Analysis and Terminologies and
Medical Language
 Structural Organization of the Human Body
 Standard Anatomical Positions and Directional terms
 Musculoskeletal system
 Respiratory System
 Cardiovascular System
 Nervous System
 Gastrointestinal System

OICNM (2024/2025 session)

THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Biological Foundation

→ Basic Medical Science

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

28th September 2024

OICNM 1
Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
➢ Describe science from a layman language and scientific process
➢ Define Anatomy and Physiology in Basic Medical Science
➢ Describe parts of the system anatomy/physiology

OICNM 2
 The Existence of Life
• Earth does not reveal the variety of life
forms present.

• Scientists suggest that the first life

forms were microorganisms in the
ocean for billions of years before plants
and animals.

• Mammals, birds, and flowers emerged

130 to 250 million years ago.

• The earliest Homo genus members, credit: NASA/GSFC/NOAA/USGS

including humans, have been on Earth

for 2.5 million years, with human
appearance changing in the last
300,000 years.

OICNM 3
 The Existence of Life

The contents of the earth (Lofts and Evergreen, 2011).

• Life exist in the spheres of life (Litosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere)

• Biology is study of Life
• Biology involves the study of living organisms and their interactions in
various environments.
• A person who studies biology is referred to as a BIOLOGIST → Scientist.
• Biologists explore topics ranging from cellular structures to ecosystems 4
and the entire planet. OICNM
The Process of Science
• Science is the knowledge that deals with general
truths and laws, tested through the scientific
method.

• The scientific method involves defined steps like

observation, questions, testing hypotheses through
repeatable experiments, provide findings from
observation and disclose by concluding.

• Conclusions from hypothetical question can either

be wrong or right. This meets the demand of
scientists. Such that an immediate scientist can
check again the facts provided.

• A well proofed hypothesis becomes a theory.

OICNM 5
 Branches of Science

Sciencewithd.com

Of importance to us in this course is the science of biology referred to as

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

OICNM 6
 Types of Science
1. Basic Science or Pure Science
2. Applied Science

• Basic science focuses on expanding knowledge without immediate practical

applications. It is not aimed at creating products or services.

• Applied science, on the other hand, uses science to solve real-world issues like
finding cures for diseases. Incorporates basic science applications

7
OICNM
 Types of Science
Basic Science
Basic Science

Basic Science

Applied Science

Applied Science
Applied Science

Is Medical Science Basic Science of Applied Science?

OICNM 8
 Basic Medical Science
Is Basic Medical Science a Basic
or Applied Science?

OICNM 9
https://www.conceptdraw.com/
 Basic Medical Science
BMS → Applied Science

OICNM 10
https://www.conceptdraw.com/
BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES
• These are courses in the bioscience that focuses on the
molecular, cellular and system organizations of the
body. However, a basic medical scientist can advance
further in paramedical
• Courses in Basic Medical Sciences are:
• Anatomy
• Biochemistry
• Pharmacology
• Medical Laboratory Science
• Medical Microbiology and Parasitology
• Physiology
• Biomedical Engineering
Paramedical – Public Health, Community Health Nursing,
Pathology…..

OICNM 11
Definition of Anatomy And Physiology
• Anatomy is defined as the study of structures that
which makes a whole parts of the human body.
• Gross Anatomy: subdivided into - Surface Anatomy, Regional
Anatomy and Systemic Anatomy
• Developmental: Embryological development
• Microscopic: Cellular structures
• Physiology is the study of the functions of
structures of different body parts. These functions
are based on features/characteristics of a structure
and its mechanism of action.

OICNM 12
Gross Anatomy
• This is the ability to describe a whole structure, based
on surface, regions and system
• Surface Anatomy: is the study of inner tissues of the body using
the external features description

• Regional Anatomy : This is the topographical representation or

organization of the human body as major parts into regions.

• Systemic Anatomy: is the study of the body organs systems

OICNM 13
 Regional Anatomy
Regional Anatomy : This is the
topographical representation or
organization of the human body
as major parts into regions.

Major Human Body Parts are:

1. Head
2. Neck
3. Trunk: thorax, abdomen,
back, and pelvis/perineum
4. Lower Limb and
5. Upper Limb

Source: Keith Moore

OICNM 14
Source: Keith Moore

OICNM 15
Surface Anatomy
Surface Anatomy: is the study of inner tissues of the body using the
external features description. Inner vision description

JABSOM
OICNM 16
Systemic Anatomy
Systemic Anatomy: is the study of the body organs systems

1. Circulatory system
2. Integumentary system
3. Articular system
4. Nervous system
5. Skeletal system
6. Muscular system
7. Respiratory system
8. Lymphatic system
9. Endocrine system
OICNM 10. Urinary System 17
11. Digestive System
QUICK ONE

Circulatory Respiratory
System System Skeletal
System
Muscular
Digestive System
Nervous
System
System

OICNM 18
Human Physiology
1. Cardiovascular system
2. Respiratory system
3. Nervous system
4. Gastrointestinal system
5. Musculoskeletal system

OICNM 19
Systemic Anatomy

Cardiovascular System

OICNM 20
Systemic Anatomy

Respiratory System

OICNM 21
Systemic Anatomy

Nervous System

OICNM 22
Systemic Anatomy

Digestive System

OICNM 23
Systemic Anatomy

Musculoskeletal System

OICNM 24
Systemic Anatomy

From our discussion how many systems do we have

here?

OICNM 25
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 26
Direct any question you have in future
to the email address

[email protected]

OICNM 27
 THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Basic Word Structure, Anatomical

Terminology

→ Basic Medical Science

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

5TH October 2024

OICNM 1
Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
➢ Describe Basic Anatomical Terminologies used in Health
Professions
➢ Understand the various human body descriptions,
relationships and their anatomical movement

OICNM 2
Human Body Description

OICNM 3
OICNM 4
OICNM 5
OICNM 6
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Terminology are accepted terminologies
used widely by health care professionals and
scientists. In anatomical terminologies its important
to know various anatomical positions and planes.

OICNM 7
 ANATOMICAL POSTION
• This is a position where the body is positioned as if the person were
standing upright, supine with the following 4 major positions:
• Eyes, head and ties anteriorly
• Arms adjacent to the side of the body
• palms face anteriorly
• Lower limbs, together and feet parallel

OICNM 8
OICNM 9
 ANATOMICAL
• The human body in
PLANES
its anatomical Frontal Plane divides the body into
Median plane divides the body anterior and posterior
position is longitudinally to left and right halves Transverse plane divides the bod
described on four two halves (Upper and lower), an
are right angled to median and f
(4) major planes
imaginary planes
which are;
• Median
• Frontal
• Sagittal
• Transverse

Sagittal Planes are parallel to median

plane which are vertical sectioning

OICNM 10
OICNM 11
 Uses of Anatomical Planes
• Specifically, the need for anatomical planes are for various sectioning of
the human body parts that which aid in locations of internal organs and
or body parts in quest for. The following are uses of anatomical planes:
• Longitudinal sections
• Transverse sections
• Oblique sections

OICNM 12
Terminologies used in Comparison and Relationship
EZ Med

OICNM 13
Terminologies used in Comparison and Relationship
EZ Med

e.g. right thumb and right toe

Bilateral : paired structure located left and right e.g.

Kidney
Unilateral : structures occurring only on a side e.g
spleen

e.g. right hand and left hand

OICNM 14
Terminologies used in Comparison and Relationship

OICNM 15
OICNM 16
Terms Use in Movement
1. Extension – increasing the angle or straightening
2. Flexion – decreasing the angle

OICNM 17
OICNM 18
OICNM 19
OICNM 20
QUICK ONE – Describe the movements of the right and left
lower limbs and the trunk

OICNM 21
Quick One - Describe the movements of the right
lower limb

OICNM 22
3. Opposition – movement by which the pad of the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit
pad
4. Reposition – movement of the 1st digit from the position of opposition back to its anatomical
position.
5. Pronation -- rotates the radius medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly and its
dorsum faces anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed, pronation moves the hand so that the
palm faces inferiorly
6. Suppination -- opposite rotational movement, rotating the radius laterally and uncrossing it
from the ulna, returning the pronated forearm to the anatomical position.

OICNM 23
Describe the movement

OICNM 24
Pronation of the fore arm, action
on the radius and ulna

OICNM 25
7. Elevation: raises or moves a part superiorly, as in elevating the shoulders when shrugging, the
upper eyelid when opening the eye, or the tongue when pushing it up against the palate (roof of
mouth).

8. Depression: lowers or moves a part inferiorly, as in depressing the shoulders when standing
at ease, the upper eyelid when closing the eye, or pulling the tongue away from the palate.

OICNM 26
9. Eversion: moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane, turning the sole laterally

10. Inversion: moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially).

OICNM 27
11. Plantarflexion: bends the foot and toes toward the ground, as when standing on your toes.
Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit.

12. Dorsiflexion: describes flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the
front of the foot and toes off the ground

OICNM 28
13. Abduction: means moving away from the median plane

14. Adduction: means moving toward it

OICNM 29
15. Protrusion: means moving outward

16. Retraction: means moving toward the body

OICNM 30
OICNM 31
OICNM 32
Circumduction

OICNM 33
ASSIGNMENT- Describe the Anatomical Movements in a man walking

OICNM 34
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 35
Direct any question to the telegram
chat or to the mail address
[email protected]

OICNM 36
THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

The Cell

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

12TH October 2024

OICNM 1
Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
➢ Describe the cell
➢ Understand the functions of the cell organelles

OICNM 2
 BIOMOLECULES
• Biomolecules are building blocks cells, cells are building blocks of tissues, tissues
are building blocks of organ and organ are building blocks of a whole system
• Animal cell contain approximately 10,000 kinds of biomolecules
• Most Biomolecules are derived from hydrocarbons. C-H
• Important Biomolecules involved in body requirements are classified as organic
(4 major) and inorganic compounds;
• Inorganic
• Water – 50-90% of cells content by weight
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Ions – Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+
• Organic
1. Carbohydrate
2. Lipid
3. Protein
4. Nucleic acid

• Chemical properties of organic biomolecules are determined by their functional

groups OICNM 3
Illustration of biomolecules in complexity to form human body

OICNM 4
OICNM 5
 CELL
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of Life.
• There are many different types of human cells, though they
all have certain similarities.
• Each type of cell is made of chemicals and carries out
specific chemical reactions.
• Biomolecules complex in a cell are Protein, Lipid and
Carbohydrate
• In a cell there are structures knowns as cell organelles, that
thus perform different functions.
• Also the fluid content in the cytoplasm is referred to as
cytosol.

OICNM 6
QUICK ONE

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

OICNM 7
QUICK ONE

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

Our discussion is about animal cell, a
type of cell found in human

OICNM 8
ANIMAL CELL

OICNM 9
Human Cell Structure

or Cell Membrane

• The human cell structure is made up of 3 major parts

1. Cell Membrane: Lipid bilayer outer covering of the
cell
2. Cytoplasm: fluid content region where organelles are
found
3. Nucleus: control center of each cells
OICNM 10
Cell Membrane

Protective function: Cell membrane protect the Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste
cytoplasm and the organelles present in the products from the cell are excreted out through the cell
cytoplasm membrane
Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the
semipermeable membrane, which allows only some blood and carbon dioxide leaves the cell and enters the
substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier blood through the cell membrane
for other substances Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell
Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into membrane is responsible for the maintenance of shape
the cell through the cell membrane and size of the cell

OICNM 11
OICNM 12
OICNM 13
Functions of Cell Organelles

K. Semuligham

OICNM 14
OICNM 15
Understand the structure and function
of the cell and its organelles

Lecture Objectives

OICNM 16
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 17
Assessment
• List all the cells found in all the human body system

OICNM 18
Direct any question to the telegram
chat or to the mail address
[email protected]

19
 THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Basic Word Structure and Language

of Medicine
→ Basic Medical Science

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

19TH October 2024

OICNM 1
Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
➢ Describe basic word used in anatomy and physiology in medical
descriptions
➢ Understand the various word analysis in describing the human
body

OICNM 2
LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE

OICNM 3
Language of Medicine And Its Use
• Language of medicine are medical terms use by professionals to
communicate with co-workers and future patients.

• It is important to use these medical term as it helps medical staff

communicate more efficiently and thus makes documentation
easier.

• Globally, these medical terms are the same.

OICNM 4
 History of Medical Terms
• Medical terminology has evolved in great measure from the Latin and
Greek languages.

• During the Renaissance period, the science of anatomy was begun.

Many early anatomists were faculty members in Italian schools of
medicine. These early anatomists assigned Latin names to structures
that they discovered. This tradition has continued. For this reason,
Latin accounts for the majority of root words in the English
language.

• Some names for conditions were retained from the teachings of Galen
(A.D. 130–200), a Greek physician who wrote texts on medicine in the
later part of his life. These remained influential for almost 1,500 years.

OICNM 5
 History of Medical Terms (Cont..d)
• Many of the disease and condition names first used by Galen have

been retained. This accounts for the fact that the second most

common source of medical root words is the Greek language.

• Other older roots have their origins in Arabic. This is due to the fact

that Arabic scholars were important teachers of medicine through the

middle ages. Some modern roots are taken from the English language.

This reflects the pre-eminence of the English language in medicine

and biomedical sciences for the past half century.

• Some words in modern medical terminology have been borrowed from

biology. Many of these are names of genus and species of pathogens. 6

OICNM
History of Medical Terms (Cont..d)
• Today, all the most influential medical journals are written in English,

and English has become the language of choice at international

conferences. We have entered the era of medical English, which

resembles the era of medical Latin in that, once again, medical doctors

have chosen a single language for international communication.

OICNM 7
OICNM 8
OICNM 9
Body Parts Descriptive Definition
Terms
Axillary Armpit
Brachial upper arm

Buccal (oral) mouth

Cardiac Cardiac heart
Cervical neck
Cranial head

Cutaneous skin
Deltoid shoulder
Femoral thigh

Frontal forehead
Gastric stomach
Gluteal buttocks
Hepatic liver
Iliac hip

Mammary breast
10
OICNM
Body Parts Descriptive Definition
Terms
Occipital back of head

Orbital eye
Parietal crown of head
Patellar kneecap
Pedal foot
Perineal pelvic floor
Plantar sole of foot

Popliteal back of knee

Pulmonary lungs

Renal kidney

Sacral base of spine

Scapular shoulder blade

OICNM 11
 Medical Terms Word Formation Analysis
• The Latin language has origins referred to as roots and adds suffixes to nouns to

denote different syntax constructions. Also, some prefixes are adaptations of Latin

words. In medical descriptions and terminology, they are attached to root words

rather than being separate from the word that they were modifying.

• Root: to identify body parts

• Prefixes: are often used to indicate locations on the body or directions relative to

planes or structures in the body.

• Suffix : added to root words

OICNM
12
Medical Terms Word Formation Analysis

OICNM
13
• The Latin language has origins referred to as roots and adds suffixes to nouns to
denote different syntax constructions. Also, some prefixes are adaptations of Latin
Medical Terms Word Formation Analysis
words. In medical descriptions and terminology, they are attached to root words
rather than being separate from the word that they were modifying.
• Prefixes are often used to indicate locations on the body or directions relative to
planes or structures in the body.

Root-Word Suffix

• E.g. NEUROLOGY NEURO - Neuron/cells, LOGY – to study

ENTEROLOGY ENTERO – Intestine, LOGY – to study

Root-Word Root-Word Suffix

• E.g. GASTRO-ENTERO-LOGY GASTRO- stomach ENTERO –Intestine, LOGY – to study

Prefix Root-Word Suffix

• E.g ENDOCRINOLOGY ENDO- Within/Inside, CRIN – Gland, LOGY – to study

OICNM
14
Root Words Definition
Hema Blood
Gastro Stomach

Cardio Heart
Crin/e Gland
Arthr/o Joint
Ceph head
Cyt/e cell
derma skin
Erythr/o Red

Nephr/o Nephron
Onc/o tumor
Oste/o Bone
Path/o Disease
Ped/o Child

Ren.o Kidney

OICNM 15
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 16
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 17
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 18
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 19
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 20
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 21
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 22
 https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/medical-terminology

OICNM 23
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 24
Direct any question to the telegram
chat or to the mail address
[email protected]

OICNM 25
OICNM 26
THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Cellular Transport Across A

membrane
Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)
[email protected]

OICNM 26TH October 2024 1

Lecture Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the students should be able to:
• Describe cellular transport system
• Identify the types of Cellular Transports

OICNM 2
 Cellular Transport
• Living cells have a continuous process of interaction with the blood or
tissue fluid surrounding them, with the aim of taking in certain
substances and secreting or excreting others.
• The mechanisms of transport that enable cells to move materials into or
out of the cell include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active
transport, filtration, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.
• These mechanisms are crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis and
play an essential role in various physiological processes.
• While some of these transport mechanisms take place without the need
for energy, others require energy in the form of ATP.

OICNM 3
Cell Membrane

Protective function: Cell membrane protect the Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste
cytoplasm and the organelles present in the products from the cell are excreted out through the cell
cytoplasm membrane
Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the
semipermeable membrane, which allows only some blood and carbon dioxide leaves the cell and enters the
substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier blood through the cell membrane
for other substances Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell
Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into membrane is responsible for the maintenance of shape
the cell through the cell membrane and size of the cell

OICNM 4
 Cellular Transport
• Cells possess two (2) distinct mechanisms to facilitate the movement of
substances into and out of the cell:
• Passive transport system – movement across downhill
• Active transport system – movement across uphill

• Passive Transports:
i. Simple Diffusion
ii. Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transports:
i. Primary Transport
ii. Secondary Transport

OICNM 5
 Simple Diffusion
• Simple diffusion is a fundamental process by which particles or substances
move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• The movement of these substances does not require membrane proteins to
assist in the downhill movement. This type of diffusion occurs spontaneously
without the need for external energy input and is driven by the concentration
gradient of the particles or substances involved. Simple diffusion plays a vital
role in many biological processes, such as the exchange of gases in the lungs
and the transport of nutrients across cell membranes.

OICNM
6
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is a mechanism whereby molecules are transported
across a biological membrane from regions of high concentration to regions
of low concentration, aided by a transport molecule.

OICNM
7
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Active transport is a process in which one or more solutes are
transferred against an electrochemical potential gradient, or
"uphill." Essentially, the solute is moved from an area of low
concentration (or low electrochemical potential) to an area of high
concentration (or high electrochemical potential).
• However, since movement of a solute uphill requires work,
metabolic energy in the form of ATP must be supplied. As a result
of this process, ATP is hydrolyzed to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate (Pi), releasing energy from the terminal
high-energy phosphate bond of ATP.
• In summary, active transport is a critical biological process that
requires the input of energy in the form of ATP to move solutes
against a concentration gradient.

OICNM 8
 Primary Active Transport

• Primary active transport is a process that employs a chemical energy source such
as ATP to transport molecules across a membrane against their concentration
gradient, thereby maintaining cellular homeostasis.
• Examples Na+→K+ ATPase present in all cell membranes, the Ca2+ ATPase
present in sarcoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum, and the H+-K+ ATPase
present in gastric parietal cells

OICNM
9
 Secondary Active Transport
• Secondary active transport mechanisms refer to processes that involve the
simultaneous transportation of two or more solutes, where the movement
of one solute is facilitated by the energy released from the downhill
movement of another solute, usually Na+, and the uphill transportation of
the other solute against its electrochemical gradient. This form of transport
is highly efficient and requires less energy compared to primary active
transport, which is mediated by ATP hydrolysis. The coupling of these solutes
in a secondary active transport process plays a crucial role in the
maintenance of cellular homeostasis and various physiological processes.

OICNM 10
 Secondary Active Transport (Contd.)
• There exist two distinct categories of secondary active transport, which can
be distinguished based on the direction of movement of the uphill solute.
• When the uphill solute moves in the same direction as Na+, it is referred to
as cotransport or symport.
• Conversely, when the uphill solute moves in the opposite direction of Na+, it
is referred to as countertransport, antiport, or exchange. These two types of
secondary active transport are fundamentally dissimilar and can be easily
identified based on the directionality of the uphill solute movement.

OICNM
11
 Cotransport
• Cotransport or symport is a type of secondary active transport mechanism
wherein all the solutes are transported in the same direction across the cell
membrane. The process involves the movement of Na+ into the cell through
the carrier down its electrochemical gradient, and as a result, the solutes co-
transported with Na+ also move into the cell.
• Cotransport plays a crucial role in several vital physiological processes,
particularly in the absorbing epithelia of the small intestine and the renal
tubule. The epithelial cells of both the small intestine and renal proximal
tubule possess Na+-glucose cotransport (SGLT) and Na+-amino acid
cotransport in their luminal membranes.

12
OICNM
 Countertransport
• Countertransport, which is also known as antiport or exchange, is a type of
secondary active transport mechanism that operates by enabling solutes to
move in opposing directions through the cellular membrane. In this process,
sodium ions move into the cell through the carrier down its electrochemical
gradient, whereas the solutes that are countertransported or exchanged for
Na+ move out of the cell. The movement of solutes through countertransport
plays a vital role in maintaining the stability and functionality of the cell.
• Example: Ca2+-Na+ countertransport (exchange) in a muscle cell.

OICNM 13
Cellular Transport

OICNM 14
 SPECIAL TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT: Osmosis
• Osmosis refers to the movement of water through a semipermeable
membrane that occurs as a result of variations in solute
concentration. This process is driven by differences in the osmotic
pressure caused by impermeant solutes' concentration differences.
As a result of this osmotic pressure difference, water flows through
osmosis.
• It is important to note that osmosis and diffusion are not the same
phenomena; osmosis is driven by pressure differences, while
diffusion is driven by differences in water concentration or activity.

OICNM 15
 SPECIAL TYPES OF PASSIVE TRANSPORT: Filtration
• Filtration involves the application of hydrostatic pressure to push small
particles through a semipermeable membrane. In the human body, filtration
can occur in various locations, including at the end of the blood vessels'
capillaries. Blood pressure aids in pushing fluid and solutes out of the single-
layered cells of the capillaries into the surrounding interstitial fluid (ISF) space.
However, large molecules like proteins and red blood cells remain in the
capillaries. Another example of filtration in the human body happens in the
kidneys. Blood pressure causes the movement of water and dissolved waste
products such as urea and uric acid into the kidney tubules, leading to urine
formation.

16
OICNM
 SPECIAL TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Endocytosis
• Endocytosis is a fundamental cellular process that enables cells to engulf
molecules such as proteins from the external environment by utilizing their
cell membranes.
• The reason behind the use of endocytosis by all cells in the body is that most
important substances for them are polar and composed of large molecules,
which cannot permeate the hydrophobic plasma membrane.
• The process of endocytosis involves the formation of a fold in the cell
membrane, which results in the creation of a new intracellular pod that
contains the substance.
• There are three different types of endocytosis, each of which is specialized to
internalize different types of molecules and to operate in specific cellular
contexts.
• These types include phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated
endocytosis which all contribute to maintaining the balance of molecules
inside and outside of the cell and play vital roles in various physiological
processes.
17
OICNM
 SPECIAL TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis: Pinocytosis is a cellular mechanism that enables the uptake
of large molecules such as bacteria and antigens into the interior of cells.
This process is also known as cell drinking, as it involves the invagination of
the cell membrane to form a vesicle that engulfs extracellular material.
Pinocytosis plays a vital role in several physiological processes, including
the immune response, nutrient uptake, and cellular signaling.
• Pinocytosis: Phagocytosis refers to the cellular process where particles
that exceed macromolecular dimensions are internalized. This
fundamental mechanism of cellular uptake is also known as "cell eating,"
as it entails the engulfment of particles by the cell membrane.
Phagocytosis is crucial for numerous physiological functions, including
immune defense, nutrient uptake, and tissue remodeling.
• Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a
process of transportation of macromolecules facilitated by receptor
proteins, which are responsible for the recognition and binding of
extracellular molecules, internalization, and subsequent intracellular
trafficking.
18
OICNM
SPECIAL TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Endocytosis

19
OICNM
 SPECIAL TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Exocytosis
• Exocytosis is a cellular mechanism through which the release of substances
from the cell takes place.

20
OICNM
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 21
Direct any question to the
telegram chat or to the mail
address
[email protected]

22
THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Cellular Junctions
Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)
[email protected]

OICNM 2nd/9th November 2024 1

Lecture Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the students should be able to:
• Describe a cell junction
• Identify the types of Cell junctions in cell communication and
signaling

OICNM 2
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-adhesion-and-cell-communication-14050486/

OICNM 3
Why do cell communicate and signal?

OICNM 4
Cells’ Communicate and Signals

OICNM 5
 CELL JUNCTION
• Cell communicates via cell junctions. Cell junction is also known as
membrane junction.
• Cell junction is a means of communication either by:
1. connection between the neighboring cells or
2. contact between the cells and extracellular matrix

OICNM 6
 CELL JUNCTION
• Cell communicates via cell junctions. Cell junction is also known as
membrane junction.
• Cell junction is a means of communication either by:
1. connection between the neighboring cells: connect adjacent cells within
tissues, playing a pivotal role in maintaining tissue homeostasis by
overseeing essential cellular activities such as tissue barrier integrity, cell
proliferation, and cell migration.
2. contact between the cells and extracellular matrix connects cell to tissue
layers

OICNM 7
 CELL JUNCTION
There are 3 Classification of Cell Junction:
1) Occluding junctions
2) Communicating junctions
3) Anchoring junctions

K.Sembuligam, 6th Edition

OICNM 8
 CELL JUNCTION Cont.
• Occluding junctions It prevent the movement of ions and molecules from
one cell to another cell. If cell junction tends to communicate, it is done by
exchange of specific small molecules only i.e. junction is selective in nature e.g.
Tight Junction – blood brain barrier

Focal Adhesion Hemidesmosome

OICNM 9
OICNM 10
 Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
• Blood Brain Barrier, BBB was introduced by Stern et al. around 100 years ago, describing a
barrier between blood and nervous tissue.
• BBB is a complex structure allowing controlled passage of substances.
• In adults, the BBB includes endothelial cells, astrocytes, neurons, and pericytes, referred to
as the "neurovascular unit" by the Stroke Progress Review Group in 2002 at the NIH, USA.

Wen-Hai Chou, Robert O. Messing. J Clin Invest. 2008;118(1):17-20. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI34516

11
OICNM
 CELL JUNCTION Cont.
• Communicating Junctions
This cell junctions permit the intercellular exchange of substances, i.e. the
movement of ions and molecules from one cell to another cell e.g. Gap
Junction – chemical synapse.

Focal Adhesion Hemidesmosome

OICNM 12
 Chemical Synapse
• Chemical synapses transmit signals between neurons using chemical neurotransmitters
Via the 40nm gap called the synaptic cleft.
• Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic side, allowing ions to enter.
• This changes voltage across membrane, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization.

13
OICNM
Occluding and Communicating junctions are cell to cell junctions? T or F

OICNM 14
 CELL JUNCTION Cont.
• Anchoring junctions
These junctions provide firm structural attachment between two cells or between a cell and
the extracellular matrix;
a) Cell to cell – Adherens and Desmosome
b) Cell to matrix – Focal Adhesion or Hemidesome

Focal Adhesion Hemidesmosome

OICNM 15
 CELL JUNCTION Cont.
• Anchoring junctions : Protein such as actin filament and intermediate filament
1. ACTIN FILAMENT
Adherens junctions (cell to cell)
Focal adhesions (cell to matrix)
2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT
Desmosomes (cell to cell)
hemidesmosomes (cell to matrix)

Focal Adhesion Hemidesmosome

A. Adebola, R.K.H. Liem, Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2009

OICNM 16
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 17
Direct any question to the
telegram/LMS chat or to the mail
address
[email protected]

OICNM 18
 THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Structural organization of
the human body

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

OICNM 16TH November 2024 1

Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

➢ Describe the structural organization of the human body

➢ Explain the concept of Function of Human to Life

OICNM 2
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
From Fundamentals of Biology, the structural organization of the human body is
simply described with
Cell Tissue Organ System

OICNM 3
 CELL
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of Life.

• There are many different types of human cells, though they all have certain
similarities.

• Each type of cell is made of chemicals and carries out specific chemical reactions.

• Biomolecules complex in a cell are Protein, Lipid and Carbohydrate

• In a cell is a cell organelles, that thus perform different functions

OICNM 4
OICNM 5
 TISSUES
Tissues are group of cells with similar structures and functions. In human body,
there are 4 basic types of tissues:

• Connective tissue: Examples are blood, bone, cartilage, and adipose tissue. They
are group of tissues that aid in connection, transportation, storage and support
in various parts of the body.

• Epithelial tissue: these are body liners/covers and performs other functions such
as secretion of substances, e.g. sweat gland, skin layers, epithelial layers in
internal organs

• Muscular tissue: tissues that aid in movement and supports. e.g. smooth
muscle, skeletal muscles

• Nervous tissue: performs body functions by transmitting electrical impulse from

one nerve cell to another. e.g., brain OICNM
nerve fibre, optic nerve fibre 6
TISSUES

OICNM 7
 ORGAN
• There are various organs that performs specific functions in human body.
These organs are group of tissues. E.g., Internal organ as shown below

OICNM 8
 SYSTEMS
• An organ system is a group of organs that all performs a particular function.
Examples are the Circulatory system, urinary system, digestive system, and
respiratory system etc.

OICNM 9
SYSTEM ORGANS Functions
Circulatory System heart, blood, arteries Transports oxygen and nutrients
to tissues and removes waste
products

Respiratory System lungs, trachea, larynx, Exchanges oxygen and carbon

diaphragm dioxide between the air and
blood
Endocrine System thyroid gland, pituitary gland, Regulates body functions such
pancreas as growth and reproduction by
means of hormones

Digestive System stomach, colon, liver, pancreas Changes food to simple

chemicals that can be absorbed
and used by the body

Muscular System muscles, tendons Moves the skeleton

Produces heat
Skeletal System bones, ligament Supports the body
Protects internal organs and red
bone marrow
Provides a framework to be
moved by muscles
OICNM
10
SYSTEM ORGANS Functions
Integumentary System skin, subcutaneous tissue Is a barrier to pathogens and
chemicals
Prevents excessive water loss

Urinary System kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra Removes waste products from
the blood
Regulates volume and pH of
blood and tissue fluid
Reproductive System Male: testes, prostate gland Produces eggs or sperm
Female: ovaries, uterus In women, provides a site for
the developing embryo-fetus

Nervous System brain, nerves, eyes, ears Interprets sensory information

Regulates body functions such
as movement by means of
electrochemical impulses
Lymphatic System spleen, lymph nodes Returns tissue fluid to the blood
Destroys pathogens that enter
the body and provides immunity

OICNM 11
Function of Human to
Life

OICNM 12
 Function of Human to Life
• Function of human to life are fundamental characteristics to existence i.e.,
gradual stages from birth to survival in the environment. These characteristics
are found in different organ systems, each of which each performs specific vital
functions in physiology. Of these many system functions are summarized into
the following function of human to life:
1. Reproduction
2. Growth
3. Movement
4. Respiration
5. Responsiveness to the environment
6. Digestion
7. Absorption
8. Circulation
9. Assimilation
OICNM 13
10. Excretion
• Reproduction – at both the micro‐ and the macro-level, reproduction is an essential
process. At the macro-level is the reproduction of the organism, and at the micro-
level is the reproduction of new cells to maintain the efficiency and growth of the
organism.
• Growth – essential for the growth and development of an organism.
• Growth- physical changes in size, shape, length and weight
• Development - changes that result from growth
• Movement – changes in position as well as motion are parts of movement. This
characteristic is essential to allow the organism to seek out nutrition, partners for
reproduction, escape from predators e.t.c.
OICNM 14
• Respiration – external respiration is important for obtaining oxygen and releasing carbon
dioxide (or obtaining carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen if a green plant), while
internal respiration releases energy from foods.

• Responsiveness to the environment – organisms need to be able to respond to changes

in the environment, for example, or to other stimuli such as predator danger

• Digestion – this is the breakdown of food substances, so that the organism can produce
the energy necessary for its life.

• Absorption – the movement of substances, such as digested food, through membranes

and into body fluids, including blood and lymph, which then carry the substances to the
parts of the organism requiring them.

• Circulation – the movement of substances through the body in the body fluids.

• Assimilation – the changing of absorbed substances into different substances, which can
then be utilized by the tissues of the body.

• Excretion – the removal of waste substances from the body, either because they are of
no use to the body or because they are harmful to the body.

OICNM 15
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 16
Direct any question to the
telegram/LMS chat or to the mail
address
[email protected]

OICNM 17
THE OPEN INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE
OF NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

HOMEOSTASIS

Baliqis Olukade (B.Sc., M.Sc.)

[email protected]

OICNM 23TH November 2024 1

 Lecture Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
➢ Describe homeostasis

➢ Understand the homeostatic mechanism and its mechanism of

action in various human body regulations

OICNM 2
 HOMEOSTASIS

Homeo - same stasis – standing/position/state

OICNM
3
 HOMEOSTASIS
• Homeostasis is the body’s attempt to maintain a stable
internal environment (ECF) by achieving some sort of
balance. The body is normally able to achieve a relatively
stable internal environment even though the external
environment is constantly changing – from cold to hot, or
from dry to wet, and so on.
• Human body is made of regulators that maintains stability.
• It is important to know that every system of the body has its
own regulators
• These regulators are various homeostatic mechanisms to
monitor and maintain a dynamic state of equilibrium within
the body – that is, a balance in which the internal
environment conditions can react to external environmental
conditions by changing within quite narrow limits.
• The concept of Homeostasis forms the basis of PHYSIOLOGY 4
 HOMEOSTASIS
HISTORY
• Claude Bernard, stated higher animals with complex cells have a
highly organized structures with controlled internal environment
which he named “milieu interior” while Walter B Canon simply
identified this as “homeostasis”.

OICNM 5
 BODY FLUID COMPARTMENT
• There are 2 major compartments(portions) in
the body system that contain fluids:
1. ICF – Intracellular Fluid (55%) of total
body water TBW, 22L
2. ECF – Extracellular Fluid (45%) of total
body water, 18L

Human Total Body Water in

a physiological man of 70kg
is 40 Liter

• Internal environment (Extracellular Fluid) which takes 18L portion of TBW,

serves essential regulator
• Normal healthy living of large organisms including human beings depends upon
the constant maintenance of internal environment within the physiological
limits. If the internal environment deviates beyond the set limits, body suffers
from malfunction or dysfunction. OICNM
6
 BODY FLUID COMPARTMENT
• There are 2 major compartments(portions) in the body system that
contain fluids:
1. ICF – Intracellular Fluid (55%) of total body water TBW, 22L
2. ECF – Extracellular Fluid (45%) of total body water, 18L
ECF is divided into 5 subunits:
i. Interstitial fluid and lymph (20%)
Human TBW in a
physiological man of
ii. Plasma (7.5%)
70kg is 40 Liter iii. Fluid in bones (7.5%)
iv. Fluid in dense connective tissues like cartilage (7.5%)
v. Transcellular fluid (2.5%) that includes: (a). Cerebrospinal
fluid (b) Intraocular fluid (c) Digestive juices (d) Serous
fluid – intrapleural fluid, pericardial fluid and peritoneal
fluid e. Synovial fluid in joints. Fluid in urinary tract.

OICNM 7
 TYPICAL
EXAMPLE

OICNM 8
 HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM
• The homeostatic mechanisms include:
1. Receptors – the body has receptors that sense external and internal
environmental changes and provide information on the changes to the
control center
2. Control center – the control center determines what a particular value
(e.g. pH value or blood pressure) should be and sends out a message to
the effectors
3. Effectors – once they have received the information from the control
center, the effectors cause responses to take place within the body’s
internal environment that hopefully will produce the changes that will
enable the internal environment to return to normal values

OICNM 9
 HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM
• The homeostatic mechanisms include:
1. Receptors
2. Control center
3. Effectors

OICNM 10
 Hypothalamus
(T&t), Medulla -
Heart

Skin – sweatgland,
Blood vessels

T-39oC and thirst,

BP-140/90,

OICNM 11
OICNM 12
 2 Mechanism of Action of Homeostasis

1. Positive Feedback - is the one to which the system reacts

in such a way as to increase the intensity of the change in
the same direction. E.g. Labor, blood clotting
2. Negative Feedback -is the one to which the system reacts
in such a way as to arrest the change or reverse the
direction of change. E.g. thirst, pH, hormone level

OICNM 13
OICNM 14
Think – Share; Explain why the guy stopped drinking

OICNM 15
Example of POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

OICNM 16
 Any
Question(s)

OICNM 17
Direct any question to the
telegram/LMS chat or to the mail
address
[email protected]

OICNM 18
 PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR HUMAN STRUCTURE AND
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

By

Department of Anatomy and Physiology

The Open International College of Naturopathic Medicine, Lagos.

Contributors

Prof. Olaniyan Olugbemi Tope B.Sc., PGDE, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Miss Olukade Baliqis Adejoke B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph. D (in view)
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Table of Contents

Landmarks (Features, Planes, Organ Systems) ………………………………………… 2

Identification of Biomolecules (Protein test, Lipid test, Sugar Test) ……………..6

Urine Test ……………………………………………………………………………………………11

The Microscope ……………………………………………………………………………………13

Blood Pressure Measurement ………………………………………………………………..16

Pregnancy Test …………………………………………………………………………………… 19

Semen Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………… 21

Spirometry ………………………………………………………….……………………………… 23

Appendix ………………………………………………………….……………………………….. 26

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Landmarks (Features, Planes, Organ Systems)

Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: Landmark in Anatomy and Anatomical Descriptions
Aim: To identify various landmark in anatomy and anatomical descriptions
Introduction:
Anatomical features that stand out, such as borders, depressions, or bumps on bones or
other structures, are known as landmarks.
They act as markers for the locations and identities of other anatomical components.
The following topics will be covered in this guide:
Different kinds of landmarks will be discussed, including human body surface features,
orientation and directions, planes.
Learning terms like superior, inferior, medial, and lateral will be crucial for describing the
relative positions of structures.
Anatomical planes: Mastering the concept of frontal, sagittal, and transverse planes will be
essential for visualizing and describing the three-dimensional organization of the body.
Practice with models: You will gain hands-on experience by identifying landmarks on
anatomical models.
Model: HUMAN BODY, Male Surface Landmarks Models

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ANATOMICAL POSITION

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ANATOMICAL PLANES

1. Identify with an underline the location of common surface landmarks found in both
male and female: head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, nasal, orbital, oral, buccal,
occipital, cervical, axillary, thoracic, mammary, umbilical, lumbar, sacral, gluteal,
brachial, pelvic, abdominal, pubic, inguinal, femoral, patellar, calcaneal
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2. Describe Anatomical Planes: _______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

3. State examples of the following body parts in the following directional terms:
anterior/ posterior, superior/ inferior, medial/ lateral dorsal/ventral,
superficial/deep, proximal/ distal

4. Explain and identify the various planes present on multiple models within the
laboratory guide that exhibit diverse types of sections.

5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C9sP436MvOk

6. List essential tissues and organs in the following Organ systems

a) Integumentary System

b) Muscular System

c) Nervous System

d) Endocrine System

e) Circulatory System

f) Respiratory System

g) Digestive System

h) Urinary System

i) Reproductive System

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j) Lymphatic System

k) Immune System

Identification of Biomolecules (Protein test, Lipid test, Sugar Test)

Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: Tests for Biomolecules
Aim: To identify various tests of biomolecules
Introduction: Our bodies are a fascinating blend of common and more exotic chemicals.
Simple molecules like table salt (sodium chloride), stomach acid (hydrochloric acid), the
oxygen we breathe, and the carbon dioxide we exhale all play a part. These larger, more
intricate structures are constantly being built up and broken down in our cells through a
process called metabolism.
Anabolism is the building process, where smaller molecules are combined to form larger
ones. Catabolism is the breakdown process, where larger molecules are broken down into
smaller ones. Together, these two processes, along with the energy they generate, are what
keeps us alive and functioning.
Our bodies can handle a wide variety of organic molecules, but three main groups stand out:
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Sugar or Carbohydrates are like the body's fuel source. They are built from carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen in a simple ratio. Simple sugars like glucose and fructose are the
building blocks, while more complex starches are made by stringing these blocks together.
Sugars are broken down (catabolized) through a process called glycolysis, providing most of
the cell's energy.
Lipids, including fats and oils, are another essential player. They form cell membranes, act
as hormones, and serve as a major energy storage system. Excess food is often stored as fat
in our tissues.

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Proteins are the workhorses of the body. Made from chains of amino acids, they provide the
building blocks for our cells and tissues. Other proteins act as enzymes, which are like tiny
machines that speed up important chemical reactions within our cells.
Identifying these molecules is quite simple. By adding specific indicators to solutions, we can
observe changes in color or other properties, revealing the presence or absence of types of
organic molecules. This allows us to peek into the fascinating world of chemistry happening
right inside our bodies!
Test for Blood Sugar Level
▪ Get Set Up: Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water. Find a clean surface
and organize your supplies – lancing device, meter, and test strips. Prepare the
lancing device as instructed.
▪ Prick Your Finger: Clean the chosen fingertip with an alcohol swab and let it dry
completely. Use the lancing device to gently prick the side of your fingertip, aiming
for a small drop of blood. If needed, you can gently massage your finger towards the
prick to encourage blood flow.
▪ Apply the Blood: Touch the edge of a test strip to the blood droplet. Most meters
will automatically turn on when you insert the strip.
▪ See the Result: Wait patiently for a few seconds (usually around five). The meter
will then display your blood sugar level on the screen.
▪ Clean Up: Dispose of the used test strip and lancet safely according to the
manufacturer's instructions. Gently press a dry swab to the puncture site to stop any
bleeding.
Equipment: Glucometer

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osmosis.com

Test for Protein

There are various test for protein which are:
a) Biuret Test:
b) Xanthoproteic Test:
c) Millions Test:
d) Ninhydrin Test:
Biuret Test:
1. Transfer the sample: Begin by transferring the sample you want to test for protein
into a clean test tube.
2. Add sodium hydroxide: Carefully add 2 milliliters (mL) of sodium hydroxide
solution to the test tube containing the sample.
3. Add copper sulfate: Next, add 5 to 6 drops of copper sulfate solution to the mixture
in the test tube.
4. Observe the color: Look closely at the solution in the test tube. If a bluish violet color
appears, it indicates the presence of protein in the sample.

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https://learnlifescience.com/

Test for Lipid

The following are lipid panel tests that can be done:
1) Total cholesterol
2) Low protein (LDL) cholesterol
3) Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol
4) High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol
5) Triglycerides

Procedure
Need a blood test? Here's what to expect:
• The Blood Draw: A healthcare professional (phlebotomist) will use a thin needle to
collect blood from a vein in your arm.

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• Lancet can be use to prick the finger for blood

• Preparing for Accuracy: Sometimes, fasting is required for 9-12 hours beforehand,
drinking only water. This ensures the test results are accurate.
• Getting Ready: clean the area with an antiseptic wipe to prevent infection. They
might also use a tourniquet, a stretchy band, to temporarily slow blood flow and
make the vein easier to find.
• The Sample: Once collected, the blood sample is placed in a vial and sent to a
laboratory for analysis or simple use on the portable lipid panel equipment.

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Urine Test
Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: Urine analysis
Aim: ability to test for urine components

Introduction:

The average adult produces about 1.5 liters of urine daily, a tiny fraction of the filtered blood
plasma (180 liters) processed by the kidneys. This is because the kidneys reabsorb most of
the water.

Urine is a complex solution of waste products, containing about 50-60 grams of dissolved
materials per liter. Half of these are inorganic salts, while the rest are organic substances like
urea, uric acid, and creatinine. Normally, urine shouldn't contain amino acids or glucose.

Urine color is a good indicator of health. Normally amber-yellow due to urochrome (a

hemoglobin breakdown product), it can change under certain conditions. Nearly colorless
urine might indicate excessive water intake or diabetes insipidus, while milky urin e could
suggest fat, pus, or bacteria. Reddish urine can be caused by internal bleeding or the presence
of hemoglobin.

For analysis, a random urine sample is usually sufficient, but 24-hour collections can be used
for specific tests.

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The Microscope
Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: The Microscope
Aim: ability to identify the parts of the microscope and how to use it

Introduction:

Description
• A microscope allows to see detailed objects.
History
▪ In 1665, Robert Hooke introduced the use of a light microscope where he
published a book called micrographia.
▪ Antone Van Leeuwenhoek used the light microscope to identify quality of fabrics
which aided his notion to the identification of microorganisms in mediums such
as water, saliva, beer and others. He named these microorganisms “Animacules”.
This was introduced in medicine to understand disease state progress.
▪ Max knoll and Ernst Ruska created the first electron microscope. Which are
smaller in wavelength photon particles of light microscope.
▪ Other inventions were introduced such as in 1980 Henrich Rolws and Gird
Bennig introduced scanning probe microscope
Principle of Operation
▪ Conversion of real image by objective lens to virtual image by the ocular lens or
eye piece
▪ See through objects via MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTIONS.
▪ The higher the resolution the higher the magnification.
▪ Resolution is a determines the distant points on between objects
Uses
▪ To study membrane dynamics
▪ Determine the shape of organs, cells, intracellular structure
▪ Study protein interaction or protein conformation
Precautions
▪ Clean the microscope after each use
▪ Handle glass slides carefully
▪ Turn off the light source when not in use
▪ Use the two hands when carrying the microscope
▪ Properly store the microscope by lowering the nosepiece, turn off the light source
▪ Ensure your microscope is schedules for preventative maintenance
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Types of Microscopes

Light Binocular Microscope

Microscope
Trinocular Microscope
Microscope
Special Flourescent
Microscope Microscope, Electron
Microscope, Scanning
probe Microscope,
Phase contrast
Microscope

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Parts and functions

1. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens): This is the part you look through at the top of the
microscope. It typically has a magnifying power of 10x or 15x and projects the
magnified image formed by the objective lens to your eye.
2. Objective Lenses: These are lenses located on the nosepiece of the microscope. They
come in different magnifications, such as 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x. The objective lens
you choose determines the overall magnification of the image. The objective lenses
magnify the specimen.
3. Nosepiece: This is a rotating turret that holds multiple objective lenses. You can
rotate the nosepiece to select the desired objective lens.
4. Stage: This is the flat platform where you place the slide containing the specimen you
want to view. The stage has clips to hold the slide in place.
5. Illuminator: This is a light source located at the base of the microscope. It shines light
up through the condenser and onto the specimen.
6. Condenser Lens: This lens concentrates the light from the illuminator onto the
specimen. Some condensers have iris diaphragms that allow you to control the
amount of light that reaches the specimen.
7. Coarse Focus Knob: This knob is used to move the stage up and down quickly to
bring the specimen into rough focus.
8. Fine Focus Knob: This knob is used for precise focusing to get a clear and sharp
image.
9. Arm: This is the upright support that holds the head of the microscope.
10. Base: This is the stable base that supports the entire microscope.

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Blood Pressure Measurement

Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: Automated Sphygmomanometer
Aim: ability to measure the blood pressure

Introduction:

Get Ready:

1. Relax and Unwind: Sit comfortably with the back supported and legs uncrossed for
at least 5 minutes. Aim for a relaxed state for accurate reading.

2. Empty the Bladder: If possible, use the restroom beforehand to avoid any
disruptions during the measurement.

3. Skip Stimulants: Hold off on smoking, caffeine, and exercise for at least 30 minutes
before taking your blood pressure. These can temporarily raise the readings.

Validation:

1. Calibrated Cuff: Make sure the sphygmomanometer cuff is the right size for your arm
and properly calibrated for accurate measurements.

2. Stethoscope Check: Ensure the stethoscope is in good working order with the
earpieces pointed forward for optimal listening.

Measurement Time:

1. Cuff It Up: Choose the appropriate cuff size for the recipient and wrap it snugly
around your bare upper arm. The bottom edge of the bladder should be about an inch
above the bend of the elbow, where the brachial artery is located.

2. Inflation Power: Close the valve on the cuff bulb and pump air in until the gauge
reads 30-40mmHg above your estimated systolic pressure (usually inflate to 160-
180mmHg if unknown).

3. Feel the Pulse: Locate the brachial artery by placing your fingertips (index and
middle) just below the inner curve of the elbow and feeling for a pulse.
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4. Listen for the Sounds: Place the stethoscope bell firmly over the brachial artery.
Slowly release the air from the cuff by opening the valve and listen carefully for
tapping sounds.

5. Systolic Pressure: The first tapping sound that is heard is the systolic pressure. This
represents the peak pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts. Note the
reading on the gauge at this point.

6. Diastolic Pressure: Continue releasing the pressure slowly. The tapping sounds will
become muffled and then disappear entirely. The point at which they disappear is
your diastolic pressure, the minimum pressure in the arteries when your heart
relaxes between beats. Note the reading on the gauge.

7. Release the Pressure: Completely deflate the remaining air from the cuff.

Record and Repeat:

1. Write it Down: Document your systolic and diastolic pressure readings, along with
the date, time, and arm used for measurement.

2. Double Check (Optional): In some cases, your healthcare provider might

recommend repeating the measurement on the other arm or taking multiple readings
at separate intervals. Follow their specific instructions.

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Equipment: Sphygmomanometer

Mechanism of Operation of Sphygmomanometer

Pregnancy Test

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Date: ____________________________________________________________
Title: Pregnancy Test
Aim: ability to test for pregnancy

Introduction:

Pregnancy tests serve as a valuable illustration of certain endocrinological principles and are
comparatively straightforward to perform. Various kinds of pregnancy tests are utilized, all
of which rely on the identification of chorionic gonadotropin, a hormone generated by
pregnant women early in pregnancy.

Following the implantation of the fertilized ovum in the uterine wall, trophoblastic cells
surrounding the ovum commence the production of chorionic gonadotropic hormones.
These hormones bear a strong resemblance to the gonadotropic hormone activity of the
anterior pituitary, possessing both luteinizing and luteotropic characteristics.

Consequently, they facilitate the development and sustenance of the corpus luteum to ensure
appropriate levels of estrogen and progesterone in early pregnancy. The production of
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) escalates as the placenta evolves, reaching a peak
approximately eight weeks after the onset of the last menstrual period. As pregnancy
progresses, the elevated levels of HCG in the body lead to its presence in the urine, forming
the basis for pregnancy tests.

Two categories of pregnancy tests are employed:

1. Biological and
2. Immunological

Biological tests rely on the impact of chorionic gonadotropin on the reproductive organs of
test animals.

Immunological approaches involve the detection of gonadotropin through immune

responses. Chorionic gonadotropin, being a protein, acts as an antigen when introduced into
an animal, prompting the production of anti-chorionic gonadotropin antibodies.
Consequently, the blood serum of the treated animal contains these antibodies, earning the
designation of the antiserum.

Pregnancy Test Procedure and Mechanism

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Semen Analysis
Date: ____________________________________________________________
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Title: Semen Analysis

Aim: ability to test for semen profile

Introduction:

Volume: The measurement is established by transferring the specimen to a calibrated

cylinder.

Colour: It should be inspected for any abnormal hue (yellowish or reddish). What is the
observation.

Liquefaction: Normal seminal fluid undergoes liquefaction within 20 minutes. If, after one
hour, it still retains unliquefied mucus streaks or exhibits high viscosity. This observation
should be made.

pH: The pH level of a drop of semen is determined by utilizing narrow range litmus paper.

Motility of Spermatozoa by the Hanging Drop Technique:

i. A drop of semen is deposited on a cover slip.

ii. The cover slip, inverted with the semen drop hanging, is positioned on a
circular plasticine rim created on a clean slide.
iii. Spermatozoa are evaluated for motility under high magnification.
iv. Both mobile and immobile cells are tallied in no less than 10 distinct fields, and
the percentage of mobile cells is rounded to the nearest five.

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v. The average quality of sperm motility (Progressive mobility) can be ranked

from 1 to 40 (0 = exceptional motility).

N.B. The assessments should be conducted within 3 hours of sperm retrieval.

Sperm Count: In a counting chamber, typically performed in a hemocytometer or

Neubauer's counting chamber. Ideally using high-power objective lenses. A drop of semen
plus 19 drops of dilution fluid (1:20) could be utilized.

The solution must now remain undisturbed until the semen is completely liquefied. After
thorough mixing, the Neubauer's counting chamber is filled, and various areas with complete
spermatozoa are counted in five different regions (1/5th of a sq. mm gives the sperm count
per ml). Alternatively, one full sq. mm area on the chamber may be counted, and the obtained
figure multiplied by 200,000. The disparity between the two counts should not exceed 10%
at low or 20% at high densities.

a. The process of creating a seminal smear is essentially akin to that of making

blood smears.
b. The smear is fixed through air drying.
c. Giemsa stain or Leishman's stain is employed.
d. The smear is scrutinized under an oil immersion lens.

Morphology of sperm; examine the morphology on the provided stained slide (Giemsa stain)

Spirometry
Date: ____________________________________________________________
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Title: Spirometry
Aim: ability to test for lungs functions

Introduction:

Measurements of static lung volume are conducted using a spirometer apparatus equipped
with various components including a pen recorder, recording drum with chart, three -way
stop-cork, two-way respiratory valve, nose clip, and mouthpiece.

To begin the procedure, the spirometer should be filled with room air to set the writing pen
at approximately 2.5 liters on the chart. The three-way stop-cork and mouthpiece should
then be attached.

Next, the subject should wear the nose clip and breathe through the three -way stop-cork
connected to the atmosphere. Once the subject is comfortable and breathing normally, the
stop clock should be connected to the spirometer.

The recording drum should be set at gear marked 0.2 (mm2/sec) before recording 4 or 5
normal respiratory movements. At the end of a normal expiration, the subject should be
instructed to take a deep breath in and then exhale maximally.

Afterwards, additional records of normal breathing can be taken if possible. The obtained
tracings can be used to calculate various parameters as indicated in the table below.

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Practical Sheets for Guidance

Date:

Title:

Aim:

Procedure/method:

Precautions

Result and reporting

Conclusion

BMS101 Laboratory GUIDE OICNM