LASERS

INTRODUCTION: LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation. In 1960, T.H Maiman of the Hughes Research Laboratories produced Laser
action at optical frequency in ruby. Laser is a device which produces highly intense parallel
beam of monochromatic and coherent light. Laser finds application in Science, Engineering,
telecommunication, medicine, metrology, biology and computers etc.,

2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER:

Laser is

i) Highly monochromatic

ii) Highly coherence

iii) Highly directionality and

iv) Highly intense

(i) High monochromatic:

Laser beam is highly monochromatic because it has single wave length.

(ii) High degree of Coherence:
Laser beam has a predictable correlation between amplitude and phase at any one
point with any other point is called coherence.

(iii) High directionality:

An ordinary light emits the radiation in all direction where as the laser source emits the
radiation in a particular direction (i.e.) it has a small angle of divergence.Hence, the laser
beam has high directionality.
iv) High brightness:

Due to high directionality the intensity of laser beam is high, A 1mw He - Ne can be
shown to be 100 times brighter than the sun.
Electronic transitions:
Consider a system which is consisting of atoms or molecules having two energy levels E1
and E2 where E1 < E2. When it exposed to photons of energy E2-E1=h, three different kinds
of processes takes place.
(i) Absorption

(ii) Spontaneous emission and

(iii)Stimulated emission
(i) Absorption:
An atom in the lower energy level E1 makes transition to the higher energy level E2 by the
absorption of the incident photon of energy E= E2- E1 = h This process is called as
absorption

Fig 2.1(a) Fig 2.1(b)

Before absorption After absorption

R 12 α ρv N1
R12 =B12 ρv N1  (1)

Where,

R12 is the rate of absorption; ρv is the energy density of incident radiation.

N1 is the no. of atoms in the ground state. B12is the probability of absorption transition per
unit time (constant). Here, 12 represent the transition takes place from E1 to E2.

ii) Spontaneous emission:

The atom in the excited state makes transition to the ground state by emitting a photon of
energy E= E2- E1 = h spontaneously without any external triggering.

Fig. Spontaneous emission, Stimulated emission:

Rate of spontaneous emission R21 (sp) = A21N2  (2)
Where,
A21 is the probability of spontaneous emission transition per unit time (constant)
N2 is the no. of atoms in the excited state. The emission is random in direction and
independent of incident radiation.
iii) Stimulated emission:
An atom in the excited state can make transition to the ground state with the emission of
photons by external triggering i.e. incident photon of energy E= E2- E1 = h. This process is
known as stimulated emission.

Fig. Stimulated emission

R21 (st) α ρv N2
R 21(st) =B21 ρv N2 → (3)
Where, R 21 is the rate of stimulated emission and B21 is the probability of stimulated emission
transitions per unit time (constant).

2.4 EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS A &B:

Under thermal equilibrium,

The rate of absorption = The rate of emission

B12 ρv N1= A21N2 + B21 ρv N2

Rate of absorption = Rate of emission [spontaneous + stimulated]

ρv [B12 N1 - B21 N2] = A21N2

ρv = A21N2/ (B12 N1 - B21N2)

ρv = A21N2/ [B12 (N1/ N2) - B21] → (4)

According to Boltzmann distribution law
N1 = N0 e –E1/ kT
Similarly, N2 = N0 e –E2/ kT
Where, K is the Boltzmann constant

T is the absolute temperature and N0 is the number of atoms at absolute zero temperature.

At equilibrium, the ratio between the population levels N2 & N1

N2 / N1 = exp [(E2 –E1) /KT]
N2 / N1 = exp (h / KT)  (5)
Where, (E2- E1 = h)
Substituting eqn. (5) in eqn. (4), we get,
ρv= A21/ {(B12/ B21) exp (h/ KT)} - 1 (6)
According to Planck’s energy distribution radiation law,
8лh³/ C3[exp (h / KT) ] - 1 (7)
Comparing eqns. (6) and (7) , we can write

B12= B21 = B

A21/B21 = 8лh³/ C³ (i.e.) A/B = 8лh³/ C³  (8) (A21 =A)

A & B are called as Einstein’s Coefficients.
Ratio of stimulated and spontaneous emission rates:
From eqn (2) and (3) we have,
R21 (St)/ R21 (Sp) = B21 ρv N2 / A21N2
R21 (St)/ R21 (Sp) = B21 ρv / A21 (9)

From eqn. (6) we can write

B21 ρv / A21=1/ {(B12/ B21) exp (h/ KT)}- 1

Since B12 = B21 , we get

B21 ρv / A21 =1/ [exp (h/ KT)]- 1  (10)

Comparing eqn. (9) & (10) we get

R21 (St)/ R21 (Sp) = B21 ρv / A21 = 1/ [exp (h/ KT)] - 1

The above expression can be written as,

R= B21 ρv / A21

If we want to increase the number of coherent photons, stimulated emission should

dominate over the spontaneous emission. For this achievement population inversion is
required.
Differences between Stimulated & Spontaneous Emissions:

S.NO. Stimulated emission Spontaneous emission

1 Photonic emission takes place due Photonic emission takes place without any
to external triggering external triggering.
2 Rate of emission depends on no. of Rate of emission depends only no. of atoms
atoms in the higher Energy level & in the excited state.
the energy density of the incident
Radiation
3 Emitted photons are highly Emitted photons are random in direction.
directional
4 The radiation is high intense, The radiation is less intense & incoherent.
Monochromatic & coherent
5 The photons are in phase The photons are not in phase
6 It can be controlled It can’t be controlled

2.6 POPULATION INVERSION:

Generally, at thermal equilibrium N1 < N2 i.e. population of higher energy level is less than
that that of lower energy level
___________0000_________E2 ______0000000___ E2

________0000000_________E1 _______000_______E1
Fig 2.4 Before population inversion Fig 2.5 After population inversion

By the help of external agency the phenomenon of achieving N2 > N1 i.e. the no of
atoms in the higher energy level is greater than lower energy level is known as population
inversion.
Conditions required for achieving population inversion.
1. At least two energy levels are required E2 > E1

2. An external agency is needed for achieving the population inversion.

3. The excitation of atoms to the higher energy level must be continuous.

Active medium: It is the medium through which the population inversion can be achieved
with the help of external agency.
2.7 PUMPING: The process of artificially achieving population inversion in the active
medium is called as pumping.

There exists many methods to achieve the population inversion among them the following
methods are commonly used they are

i) Optical pumping

ii) Direct electron excitation (Electric Discharge)

iii) Inelastic atom – atom collision.

iv) Direct conversion

v) Chemical process

i) Optical pumping: Here the population inversion is achieved with the help of external
optical source.

E.g. Nd-YAG laser

ii) Direct electron excitation: Electrons are accelerated by the strong electric field and they
collide with the gas atoms there by the exciting the atoms to the higher energy level. E.g. He-
Ne laser, Co2 laser etc

iii) Inelastic atom – atom collision: This process takes place in gas laser having a mixture of
at least two gases (A and B). Their excited states nearly coinciding A* and B* or same. ‘A’
atom make transition to the excited state by electric discharge. Now the excited A* atom
collide with B atom so that B goes to the excited state B*

E.g. He - Ne and Co2 gas laser

iv) Direct conversion: This process occurs in semiconductor laser by the increase of
temperature or application of electric field, the electrons from valence band make transition
to the conduction band there by producing population inversion.

v) Chemical process: During some chemical reaction the evaluation of energy is used to
excite the atoms.

Eg: 1) Hydrogen fluoride chemical laser

H2 + F2  2HF + excess energy  2HF*
2) Dye laser.
OPTICAL RESONATOR:
Pumping action
↓ ↓ ↓

Laser output

Perfect Reflector ↑ ↑ ↑

Fig 2.6 optical resonator

The optical resonator consists of an active medium kept between two mirrors, one is
perfect reflector another one is partial reflector.
The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of active medium are
traveled back and forth between the two reflecting surface.
This process leads to more and more stimulated transitions there by producing laser action.
2.9 TYPES OF LASERS:
Based on the type of active medium lasers are classified as follows.
i) solid state laser

3 level laser – Ruby laser

4 level laser – Nd – YAG laser

ii) Gas laser E.g. Co2 laser, He –Ne laser

iii) Semiconductor laser Eg: Ga As laser

iv) Liquid laser E.g. Europium benzoyl acetonate dissolved in all alcohol
v) Dye laser and chemical laser

Nd – YAG [Neodymium – Yttrium Aluminum Garnet Laser:

It is a four level laser. Nd stands for Neodymium and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum
Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12).

Principle: Nd – YAG rod is the active medium which is optically pumped by krypton flash
tubes Nd³+ ions are excited and during the transition from meta stable state to ground state, a
laser beam of wave length 1.06μm is emitted.

Construction:
 Fig. Nd – YAG Laser
A small amount of Y³+ (yttrium ions) is replaced by Nd³+ Neodymium ions in the Nd-
YAG crystal. The crystal is cut in to a cylindrical rod. The ends of the rod are polished and
are made flat and parallel. Flash tube and cylindrical rod are kept inside a reflector elliptical
cavity. A pair of mirror forms the optical resonator one is 100% reflecting mirror another one
is partially reflecting mirror.
Working:

Fig. Energy level diagram [Nd - YAG laser]

 When the flash lamp is switched on Nd ions are excited from E1 to higher energy
levels E2 by the absorption of light radiation of wave length 0.73μm and 0.80 μm
respectively.
From E2 the Neodymium ions make non-radiative transition to the meta-stable state E3 there
by achieving population inversion between E1 and E3.
An ion makes transition from E3 to E4 by emitting a photon of energy h. This photon will
induce a chain of stimulated emission between E3 and E4.
From E4 the Neodymium ions make non-radiative transition to the state E1 there by
completing one complete cycle.
The photons thus generated travel back and forth, between the two mirrors after sufficient
amplification an intense laser output of wave length 1.06 μm is emitted through the partial
reflector.
Salient Features:
Type : four level solid state lasers
Active medium : Nd:YAG rod
Pumping method : Optical pumping
Pumping source : Xenon or Krypton flash lamp is used as pumping source
Nature and Power of output : 10 watt, pulsed or continuous nature

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) LASER:

It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American scientist Prof.
C. K. N. Patel.

In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by transitions between vibrational

and rotational levels of molecules. Its construction is simple and the output of this laser is
continuous.

In CO2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place between the vibrational states of
Carbon dioxide molecules. It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR
region. It is a very efficient laser.
Energy Levels of CO2 Molecule: Carbon dioxide is a linear molecule. It has a carbon atom
at the center with two oxygen atoms attached, one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits
three independent modes of vibrations. They are given as follows.

a) Symmetric stretching mode: In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and
both oxygen atoms vibrate simultaneously along the axis of the molecule towards or away
from the fixed carbon atoms.
b) Bending mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to
molecular axis.

c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically,
i.e., oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in the other direction.

Principle: The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition takes
place between the vibrational states of CO2molecules.
Construction: A Quartz discharge tube of 5m long and 2.5 cm in diameter is taken. It is
filled with the gaseous mixture of CO2 (active medium), Helium, and Nitrogen with their
pressure ratio 0.33: 7:1.2 mm of Hg respectively.
A D.C power supply is connected to the terminals of the discharge tube. At the ends of
the discharge tube NaCl browser windows are kept to generate polarized beam. Optical
resonator is formed by keeping a pair of concave mirror at the ends of the Brewster window
one is fully reflecting and the other is partially reflecting

Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical
resonator.
 Fig: CO2 LASER
Working: During the electrical discharge electrons collide with nitrogen molecules and
making transition to the exited states.
state

Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.

Fig: Energy level diagram [carbon dioxide laser]

The excited nitrogen molecules collide with the CO2 molecules and excite them to the
E5 level. Hence the population inversion is achieved
ac between E1 & E5 level of CO2.
At this instant a spontaneously emitted photon will induce a chain of stimulated emission
leads to the laser action.

When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen
molecules and they are
re raised to excited states. This process is represented by the equation

N2 + e* = N2* + e
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state e* = electron with kinetic energy
N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state e = same electron with lesser energy

Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground state and
excite to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.

This process is represented by the equation N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2

N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state.

CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.

Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of CO2 atom,
population in E5 level increases. As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the
spontaneously emitted photon will trigger laser action in the tube. There are two types of
laser transition possible.

1. Transition E5 to E4 : This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm

2. Transition E5 to E3: This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm.
Normally 10.6μm transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition. The power output
from this laser is 10 kW.

Salient Features:
Type : Molecular gas laser
Active medium : CO2, N2 and He method
Pumping method : Electrical discharge method
Power and nature of output : 10 Kw and continuous or may be pulsed
Characteristics:

1. Type: It is a molecular gas laser.

2. Active medium: A mixture of CO2, N2 and helium or water vapour is used as active
medium
3. Pumping method: Electrical discharge method is used for Pumping action
4. Optical resonator: Two concave mirrors form a resonant cavity
5. Power output: The power output from this laser is about 10kW.
6. Nature of output: The nature of output may be continuous wave or pulsed wave.
7. Wavelength of output: The wavelength of output is 0.6μm and 10.6μm.

Advantages:
1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple
2. The output of this laser is continuous.
3. It has high efficiency
4. It has very high output power.
5. The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas tube.

Disadvantages:

1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have some effect on laser action
2. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of
laser.
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible (infra red region) to our
eyes.

Applications:

1. High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing, welding, drilling,
cutting soldering etc.
2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes CO2 laser suitable for open air
communication.
3. It is used for remote sensing
4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
6. It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.

3. SEMI CONDUCTOR LASER:

There are two types of semiconductor laser

1. Homo junction Laser

2. Hetero-Junction Laser

They are the cheapest and smallest lasers available.

Homo junction laser: P-N junction is formed by using single crystalline element Hetero
Junction Laser: P-N junction is formed with different materials.
2.14 HOMO JUNCTION LASER:
Principle: When the P-n junction diode (Ga-As) is forward biased the recombination of
electrons and holes takes place at the junction by emitting the light photons. The photonic
emission stimulates further recombination there by producing laser action
Construction: Homo Junction diode id made up of Ga-As single crystal. The active region is
P-n junction layer. The end faces of the diode are well polished and they constitute the
resonant cavity. It has two regions say P and n having majority carries are holes and electrons
respectively.

Fig 2.15 Homo junction laser

p+ Junction n+
Ec

Eg p+ n+
eVo Ec EF n
In v ersio n
reg i o n Ec
Ev Eg
H o les in V B EF n
EF p El ectro ns in C B
eV
Electro ns
Ec
EF p

Ev
(a) (b)

The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with no bias. (b) Band
diagram with a sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and
hence stimulated emission.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Fig 2.16 Energy level diagram [Homo junction laser]

Working: When the P-n junction
nction diode is forward biased with a voltage nearly equal to the
energy gap voltage, the electrons and holes are injected across the junction to create a
population inversion in a narrow zone called active region.
Since Ga -As As has direct band gap, the probability
probability of electrons and holes
recombination is high. The spontaneous photons will stimulate electron hole recombination,
 produces coherent radiation. Here the amplification takes place between the end faces of the
diode, the wavelength of the laser output is 9000A in IR region.
Salient Features:
 Solid state semi conductor laser
 Ga – As is the active medium
 Operates in CW / pulsed wave
 Output wave length is 9000 Å
15. HETRO JUNCTION SEMI CONDUCTOR LASER:

When a P-N junction diode is forward biased the recombination of electrons and holes
take place at the junction by emitting the light photons. These photonic emissions stimulate
further recombination thereby producing laser action.

(a) A double
n p p heterostructure diode has
two junctions which are
(a) AlGaAs GaAs AlGaAs between two different
bandgap semiconductors
(~0.1 m) (GaAs and AlGaAs).
Electrons in CB Ec
Ec (b) Simplified energy
Ec
2 eV
band diagram under a
2 eV
1.4 eV large forward bias.
Lasing recombination
(b) Ev takes place in the p-
Ev GaAs layer, the
active layer
Holes in VB

Refractive (c) Higher bandgap

index materials have a
(c) Active n ~ 5% lower refractive
region index
Photon
density
(d) AlGaAs layers
provide lateral optical
(d) confinement.
Fig 2.17 Hetero junction laser (a) Fig 2.18 Energy level diagram [Hetero junction
laser]
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Construction: A Ga As laser is (Active Region) sandwiched between two layers of GaAlAs.
The end faces of the junction 3rd and 4th layer are well polished and parallel to each other and
they constitute optical resonator.
Working: When the Diode is forward biased electrons and holes are injected in to the active
region there by achieving population inversion. At this instant any one of the spontaneous
photon due to the recombination of electron hole pair will induce a chain of recombination
leads to stimulated emission of photons. The amplification of photons take place between the
end faces of the diode and gives the laser output at the wavelength 8000 Å
Salient Features:
 It is a Double hetero junction semiconductor Laser
 1 mw output power with continuous wave form
Applications of Lasers

Medical Applications:

i. Lasers are used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery
is an example of precision surgery Birthmarks, warts and discoloring of the skin
can easily be removed with an unfocussed laser. The operations are quick and heal
quickly and, best of all, they are less painful than ordinary surgery performed with
a scalpel.
ii. Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sun spots, wrinkles,
birthmarks and hairs) see lasers hair removal.
iii. Laser types used in dermatology include ruby(694nm),alexandrite(755nm),pulsed
diode array(810nm), Nd:YAG(1064nm), HO:YAG(2090nm), and
Er:YAG(2940nm)
iv. Eye surgery and refracting surgery.
v. Soft tissue surgery: Co2 Er :YAG laser.
vi. Laser scalpel (general surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic).
vii. Dental procedures.
viii. Photo bio modulation (i.e. laser therapy)
ix. “No-touch” removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.
x. In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic, procedures, tooth
whitening, and oral surgery.
4. Military Applications

The various military applications are:

Death rays: By focusing high energetic laser beam for few seconds to aircraft, missile,
etc can be destroyed. So, these rays are called death rays or war weapons.
Laser gun: The vital part of energy body can be evaporated at short range by focusing
highly convergent beam from a laser gun.
LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging): In place of RADAR, we can use LIDAR to
estimate the size and shape of distant objects or war weapons. The differences between
RADAR and LIDAR are that, in case of RADAR, Radio waves are used where as incase
of LIDAR light is used.

In Computers: By using lasers a large amount of information or data can be stored in

CD-ROM or their storage capacity can be increased. Lasers are also used in computer
printers.

In Thermonuclear fusion: To initiate nuclear fusion reaction, very high temperature and
pressure is required. This can be created by concentrating large amount of laser energy in
a small volume. In the fusion of deuterium and tritium, irradiation with a high energy
laser beam pulse of 1 nano second duration develops a temperature of 1017 0c, this
temperature is sufficient to initiate nuclear fusion reaction.

In Scientific Research: In scientific, lasers are used in many ways including

a. A wide variety of interferometric techniques.
b. Raman spectroscopy.
c. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy.
d. Atmospheric remote sensing.
e. Investigating non linear optics phenomena
f. Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of
measurement techniques.

ii. Laser (LADAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote

sensing and atmospheric physics.
iii. Lasers have been used abroad spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission.
iv. In astronomy lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as
reference objects for adaptive optics telescope.

Industrial Applications:
It is possible to use laser beam as a tool for various Industrial applications because of
its high directionality & large intensity.
For example welding, drilling, cutting heat treatment can be done by using laser beam.
Welding and cutting:
Highly focused laser beam with high energy can be used for welding & cutting
considers two metal pieces to be welded. The laser beam heats the edges of the two plates to
their melting points and causes them to fuse together at the contact. There is no need of using
the impurities at the joint comparing to ordinary welding the input power is less and the heat
affected zone is small because of rapid cooling.
 Using CO2 laser lot of materials can be cut for ex: paper, glass, quartz, steel etc.
Laser cutting is performed by using assistance if air, O2 gas jet. These gas jets are used to
blow away the fumes and make the surface of the material to be cooled.
Ex: 1 Kw CO2 laser can cut plywood
Heat treatment:-
Using laser, Heat treatment is done to harden the metals. This treatment converts the surface
layer in to crystalline structure. Generally CO2 laser with 1kw output power of continuous
waves are used for this type of heat treatment
Medical applications:
1) Laser is used in the treatment of cancer

2) Laser is used in eye surgery, brain surgery etc.,

3) In Endoscopes to view the inner parts of the human body the laser source is used

4) Treatment of tissue in skull and spine

5) Fertility microsurgery fallopian tube reconstruction

PROBLEMS:

1. Calculate the wave length of radiation emitted by an LED made up of a semi

conducting material with band gap energy 2.8ev

Eg = 2.8ev
= 2.8 x 1.602 x 10-19 J
= 4. 4856 x 10-19 J
Eg = hc/ λ

λ= hc/ Eg , λ = 4430.8Å

2. An LED emits green light of wave length λ = 5511.11 Å. Find out the value of Eg

Eg = hc/λ Joules
Eg = 6.625x10-34x3x108/ (1.602 x 10-19x5511.11x10-10)
Eg = 2.25ev
-20
3) In a laser action the energy of the stimulated photon is 39.62 x 10 J. what is the wave
length of the stimulated photon?

Energy of stimulated photon E= 639.62 x 10 J

E = hν
Ν = 39.62 x 10-20/6.625 x 10-34
 = 6 x 10 -14 HZ
C = ν λ m/s
λ = 3 x 108/6 x 10-14
= 0.5 x 10-6m

PART-A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1) What is the Principle of laser?
Stimulated emission is the basic principle of laser. A chain of stimulated emission
leads to coherent, monochromatic, highly intense laser beam.
2) What is pumping action?
The process of creating population inversion ie more no of atoms in the excited
state than in the ground state is lemon as pumping action.
4) What are the conditions necessary for stimulated emission of radiation?
(i) Population inversion must be achieved
(ii) Photonic emission should induce atomic transition from excited state to lower
state.
5) Mention the medical applications of laser.
 Treatment of cancer detached retinas.

 Performing bloodless operation, microsurgery.

6) Define Population inversion and Meta stable state

Population inversion:
Achieving more no. of atoms in the higher energy level than in the lower energy level
is called as population inversion.
Meta stable state:
It lies between excited state & lower energy state where the atoms can spend more time
than in the excised state.
7) What are the advantages of hetero junction semi conductor laser over homo-junction
semiconductor laser?
Homo junction laser Hetero junction laser
1. It is made by a single crystalline material. 1. It is made by different crystalline
materials.
2. Output power is low. 2. Output power is high
3. Life time is less. 3. Life time is more
8) What are Einstein’s Coefficients?

Rate of stimulated absorption R12 = B12 ρv N1 Rate of spontaneous emission R21 (sp) =
A21N2

Rate of stimulated emission R21 (st) α ρv N2 , Where,

A, B are Einstein’s Coefficients

N1  No. of atoms in the lower energy level E1

N2  No. of atom in the higher energy level E2

ρv  Energy density of incident radiations.

9. What are coherent sources?

Coherent sources are the sources which have same wavelength and frequency. It has
correlation with the amplitude and phase at any point with any other point.

10. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission?

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. The atom in the excited state 1. An atom in the excited state is

returns to ground state thereby induced to return to ground state
emitting a photon, without any thereby resulting in two photons of
external inducement is called as same frequency and energy is called
spontaneous emission. as stimulated emission.
2. The emitted photons can move 2. The emitted photons move in same
randomly. direction and are highly directional.
3. The radiation given out is of less. 3. The radiation is highly intense.
4. The photons are not in phase. 4. The photons are in phase.
5. The rate of emission of transition is 5. The rate of transition is given by
given by R21(SP)=A21N1 R21(ST)=B21ρυN2

11. Define coherent length and coherent time? How are they related to each other?

The maximum length up to which two wave trains have correlation with the
amplitude and phase called coherent length and the time upto which they are
correlated are called correlated time.

Correlated time = correlated length / Velocity of light

12.What are the characteristics of laser?

1. It is highly directional
2. It has high intensity
3. It is pure monochromatic
 4. It has coherence
13. State some of the applications of lasers in engineering and Industry?

1. High power lasers are useful to blast holes in diamonds and hard steel.

2. They are used to test the presence of pores, cracks flows, blow holes etc in the
materials

3. They are used for welding and cutting.

16. How is a light emitting diode is different from a semiconductor laser?

LED LASER
1. It requires low current density 1. It requires high current density
2. Power output is low 2. Power output is high
3. Intensity is less 3. Intensity is high
4. Diode junction is used to be 4. Diode junction should not be polished
polished

PART-B QUESTIONS:
1) i) Describe the principle, construction and working of Nd:YAGLaser.
ii) Explain the Industrial applications (welding, cutting, Heat treatment) of laser.
2) Describe the construction and working of CO2 Laser with energy level diagram.
3) With suitable diagram explain how laser action is achieved in homo-junction and
hetero-junction GaAs laser.
4) (i) What are Einstein’s A and B co-efficient?
(ii) For atomic transistors, derive Einstein’s relations and hence deduce the
expressions for the ratio of spontaneous emission rate to the stimulated emission rate.