HOW DO ORGANISMS

REPRODUCE
● Reproduction: Reproduction is the process by which
living organisms produce new individuals similar to
themselves.
● It basically involves making copies of the blueprints of
the body design.
● Reproduction ensures continuity of life on earth.

DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)

● Organisms look similar because their body designs are
similar. This similarity occurs because of DNA .
● Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain
information for inheritance of features from parents to
next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic
Acid) molecules.
● The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source
for making proteins. If the information is changed,
different proteins will be made.
● Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body
designs.
● Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation
of a DNA copy.
● Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their
DNA.
● This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing
cell, and they will need to be separated from each
other. However, keeping one copy of DNA in the
original cell and simply pushing the other one out would
not work, because the copy pushed out would not have
 any organised cellular structure for maintaining life
processes.
● Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the
creation of an additional cellular apparatus, and then
the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular
apparatus. Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two
cells.

Variation
● No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable.
● Therefore, it is only to be expected that the process of
copying the DNA will have some variations each time.
● As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar,
but may not be identical to the original.
● Some of these variations might be so drastic that the
new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus
it inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.
● On the other hand, there could still be many other
variations in the DNA copies that would not lead to
such a drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving cells are
similar to, but subtly different from each other.
● Why is variation beneficial to the species but not
necessarily for the individual?
Ans:
1. This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction
is the basis for evolution.
2. Increases the chances of survival of the species.

Importance of Variation
● Populations of organisms fill well-defined places, or
niches (role an organism plays in a community), in the
ecosystem, using their ability to reproduce.
 ● The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is
important for the maintenance of body design features
that allow the organism to use that particular niche.
● Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of
populations of species.
● However, niches can change because of reasons
beyond the control of the organisms.
● If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to
a particular niche and if the niche were drastically
altered, the population could be wiped out.
● However, if some variations were to be present in a few
individuals in these populations, there would be some
chance for them to survive.
● Thus, if there were a population of bacteria living in
temperate waters, and if the water temperature were to
be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria
would die, but the few variants resistant to heat would
survive and grow further.
● Variation is thus useful for the survival of species
over time.

● Types of reproduction: Asexual and sexual.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reroduction

Single parent is involved. Both parents are involved.
Gametes are not formed. Gametes are formed.
Progeny (offspring) is identical to Progeny (offspring) is only
parent. genetically similar to the parent
but not identical .
 NOTE: Asexual Reproduction is extremely useful as a
mean of rapid multiplication. It is common in lower plants
and animals.

MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

The mode depends on the body design of the organism.

● Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism:

➢Binary Fission
➢Multiple Fission
➢Budding
● Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular
Organisms:
➢Fragmentation
➢Regeneration
➢Budding
➢Spore Formation
➢Vegetative Propagation

Fission
● Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in
most of the unicellular organisms.
● Fission: Binary fission and Multiple fission.

● Binary Fission:
➢The parent cell divides/splits into two daughter cells.
➢It occurs during highly favourable conditions.
➢Amoeba: Amoeba follows transverse binary
fission,i.e. fission in any plane.
➢In these first pseudopodia is withdrawn (karyokinesis)
and the nucleus of the parent cell divides. Then the
cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the
formation of two daughter cells.
➢Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.
➢Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.

➢Leishmania: Leishmania (causes kala-azar) has a

whip-like structure at one end and binary fission
occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures (flagellum).

● Multiple fission:
➢The parent cell divides into many daughter cells
simultaneously.
➢Occurs in unfavourable conditions.
➢Eg: Plasmodium.
➢Plasmodium: In this, during unfavourable conditions,
the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around
itself forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm
divides many times to form many plasmodia. When
conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks
and the Plasmodium are released.
 Fragmentation
● Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively
simple body organisation like Spirogyra (plant cell).
● Spirogyra has a filamentous body.
● Spirogyra simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon
maturation.
● These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.

Regeneration
● When the simple animals like Hydra ,Planaria develop
a new individual from their broken older part it is known
as regeneration.
● It is carried out by specialised cells which proliferate
and make large numbers of cells.
● From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes
to become various cell types and tissues.
● These changes take place in an organised sequence
referred to as development.
● However, regeneration is not the same as reproduction,
since most organisms would not normally depend on
being cut up to be able to reproduce.

Budding
● A bud develops as an outgrowth on the parent body
due to repeated cell division at a specific site.
● These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully
mature, detach from the parent body and become new
independent individuals.
● E.g. Hydra, yeast.
● These organisms use regenerative cells for
reproduction in the process of budding.
● Very often if the conditions are highly favourable, a
chain of buds is formed.

Vegetative Propagation
➢Method by which plants reproduce by their vegetative
parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.
➢Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types -
➢Natural vegetative propagation:
➔By Roots: Adventitious roots of Dahlias.
➔By Stems: Potato (tuber), ginger (rhizome).
 ➔By Leaves: Leaves of bryophyllum bear adventitious
buds (in the notches of leaf margin) which fall on the
soil and develop into new plants.

➢Artificial vegetative propagation:

➔Grafting: Mango.
➔Cutting: Rose.
➔Layering: Jasmine.
➔Tissue culture: Orchids, Ornamental Plants.

● Tissue Culture:
➢In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing
tissue or separating cells from the growing tip of a
plant.
➢The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where
they divide rapidly to form a small group of cells or
callus.
➢The callus is transferred to another medium containing
hormones for growth and differentiation.
➢The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they
can grow into mature plants.
➢Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from
one parent in disease-free conditions.
➢This technique is commonly used for ornamental
plants and orchids.

● Importance of Vegetative Propagation:

➢Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.
➢Growing plants like Banana, orange, rose, jasmine
that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
➢Genetic similarity is maintained in the plants.
➢Helps in growing seedless fruits.
➢Cheaper and easier method of growing plant

Spore Formation
● Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures
called hyphae.
● The erect hyphae (non-reproductive
part) bear sporangia inside which
reproductive structures called spores
are formed.
● Spores are small, bulb-like structures
which are covered by thick walls that
protect them until they come in
contact with suitable conditions.
● Under favourable conditions, they
germinate and produce new individuals.
● Eg: Rhizopus.
 Why do multicellular organisms need to use more
complex ways of reproduction? How do they
reproduce?
● This is not true for all multicellular organisms. They
cannot simply divide cell-by-cell. The reason is that
many multicellular organisms are not simply a random
collection of cells.
● Specialised cells are organised as tissues, and tissues
are organised into organs, which then have to be
placed at definite positions in the body.
● In such a carefully organised situation, cell-by-cell
division would be impractical.
● Multicellular organisms, therefore, need to use more
complex ways of reproduction.
● A basic strategy used in multicellular organisms is that
different cell types perform different specialised
functions.
● Following this general pattern, reproduction in such
organisms is also the function of a specific cell type.
● There must be a single cell type in the organism that is
capable of growing, proliferating and making other cell
types under the right circumstances.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
● When reproduction takes place as a result of fusion of
two gamets, one from each parent, it is called sexual
reproduction.
● Sexual reproduction takes place by combination of two
special reproductive cells called ‘sex cells’, they are
also called ‘gametes’ or ‘germ cell’.
● The process of fusion of male and female gametes is
called fertilization.
● The formation of gametes involves exchange of
chromosomal (genetic) fragments between homologous
chromosomes (two pieces of DNA within a diploid
organism which carry the same genes, one from each
parental source) causing genetic recombination which
leads to variation.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction

● Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular
apparatus of two different organisms which promotes
diversity of characters in the offspring.
● Since gametes are derived from two different
organisms, it results in a new combination of genes
which increases the chances of genetic variations.
● Sexual reproduction results in the origin of new
species.
● Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs
that reduces the DNA matter to half so that the zygote
formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA as
the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

● Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual

reproduction involves the process of combining DNA
from two different organisms which may bring some
undesirable features also.

● The creation of two new cells from one involves

copying of the DNA as well as of the cellular apparatus.
● The DNA copying mechanism cannot be absolutely
accurate, and the resultant errors are a source of
variations in populations of organisms.
● Every individual organism cannot be protected by
variations, but in a population, variations are useful for
ensuring the survival of the species.
● It would therefore make sense if organisms came up
with reproductive modes that allowed more and more
variation to be generated.
● If the DNA copying mechanisms were to be less
accurate, many of the resultant DNA copies would not
be able to work with the cellular apparatus, and would
die.
● Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that already
has variations accumulated from previous generations.
● Thus, two different individuals in a population would
have quite different patterns of accumulated variations.
● Combining variations from two or more individuals
would thus create new combinations of variants.
● Each combination would be novel, since it would
involve two different individuals.
● The sexual mode of reproduction incorporates such a
process of combining DNA from two different
individuals during reproduction. But this creates a major
difficulty.
● If each new generation is to be the combination of the
DNA copies from two pre-existing individuals, then
each new generation will end up having twice the
amount of DNA that the previous generation had.
● Multi-cellular organisms have special lineages of cells
in specialised organs in which only half the number of
chromosomes and half the amount of DNA as
 compared to the nonreproductive body cells. This is
achieved by a process of cell division called meiosis.
● Thus, when these germ-cells from two individuals
combine during sexual reproduction to form a new
individual, it results in reestablishment of the number of
chromosomes and the DNA content in the new
generation.
● If the zygote is to grow and develop into an organism
which has highly specialised tissues and organs, then it
has to have sufficient stores of energy for doing this.
● In very simple organisms, it is seen that the two
germ-cells are not very different from one another, or
may even be similar.
● But as the body designs become more complex, the
germ-cells also specialise.
● One germ-cell is large and contains the food-stores
while the other is smaller and likely to be motile
(capable of motion).
● The motile germ-cell is called the male gamete and the
germ-cell containing the stored food is called the
female gamete.

Mitosis vs Meiosis
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
● It occurs mostly in flowering plants.
● Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
● The parts of the flower are:
➢Calyx (sepals):
➔Sepals are green structures that protect the inner
parts when the flower is in bud stage.
➢Corolla (Petals):
➔Petals are colourful and attract the insects for
pollination.
➢Androecium (Stamens):
➔Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce
pollen grains that contain male gametes. Each
stamen has two parts— Anther and Filament.
➔Filament: stalk.
➔Anther: swollen top part which has a large number of
pollen grains that are yellowish in colour.
 ➢Gynoecium (Carpels/ Pistil):
➔The carpel is the female reproductive part and
produces ovules that contain female gametes. It has
three parts— Stigma, Style and Ovules
➔Stigma: top sticky part and receives pollen grains
during pollination.
➔Style: middle elongated part.
➔Ovary: swollen bottom part which contains ovules
and each ovule has an egg cell.

● Flores may be bisexual or unisexual.

Bisexual Flowers Unisexual flowers
Both male and female Flowers that contain either
reproductive parts i.e., stamen & stamen or carpel.
carpel are present.
Eg: Hibiscus, Mustard. Eg: Papaya, Watermelon.

● Pollination: The process of transfer of pollen grains

from an anther to the stigma of the flower is pollination.
Two types of pollination are:
 ➢Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of the same flower or another
flower of the same plant.
➢Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of another flower or another
flower of a different plant of the same species. It
generally takes place with the help of some agents like
insects, birds, wind and water.
● Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of
male and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual
reproduction. It occurs inside the ovary.
➢Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants.
➢The events are:
1. Pollen grains land on the
stigma of the ovary.
2. Pollen tubes grow out of the
pollen grains, travel through
the style and reach the ovary,
through micro pyle.
3. Pollen tube has two male germ
cells. Each ovule has two polar
nuclei and a female germ cell
(egg).
● Pollen tube releases two male
germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with the
female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into
the baby plant i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as
syngamy.
● The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei to
form an endosperm, the process is known as triple
fusion.
● In angiosperms, fertilization results in two structures,
namely, zygote and endosperm. Hence it is called
double fertilisation.

● Double fertilization: Double fertilization is a complex

process where out of two sperm cells, one fuses with
the egg cell and the other fuses with two polar nuclei
which result in a diploid (2n) zygote and a triploid (3n)
primary endosperm nucleus respectively.

● Post-fertilisation changes:
➢After fertilisation the following changes takes place in
the flower.
➢Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo
inside the ovule.
➢The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the
seed.
➢The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
➢Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and
fall off.
● Seed and its parts:
➢The advantage of seed is that it protects the future
plant i.e. embryo.
➢Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo.
➢Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
➢Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle.
➢Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
root.

● Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to forms a fruit, while

the seed contains the future plant or embryo which
develops into a seedling under suitable condition. This
process is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings

● Humans use a Sexual Mode of reproduction.
● It needs sexual maturation which includes creation of
the germ cells ie, egg (ova) in the female and sperm in
the male partner & this period of sexual maturation is
called puberty.
● Boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years, while
girls reach puberty at a comparatively lower age of 10
to 12 years.
● Puberty is associated with many physical, mental,
emotional and psychological changes in boys and girls
which occur slowly over a period of time. These are
called secondary sexual characters.
● All of these changes take place slowly, over a period of
months and years.
● They do not happen all at the same time in one person,
nor do they happen at an exact age.

● Common changes in girls and boys:

➢Thick hair grows in the armpits and the genital area
between the thighs, which can also become darker in
colour.
➢Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as
well as on the face.
➢The skin frequently becomes oily.
➢We might begin to develop pimples.
● Secondary sexual characters in boys:
➢Breast size begins to increase.
➢Skin of the nipples darkens.
➢Menstruation starts.
● Secondary sexual characters in girls:
➢Thick hair grows on the face.
➢Beard and moustache start appearing.
➢Voice begins to crack.
➢Reproductive organs develop and start producing
releasing sperms.
● On attaining puberty:
➢Male reproductive organs - testes start producing male
gametes called sperms.
➢Female reproductive organs - ovaries start producing
female gametes called ova
(eggs).

● In addition to producing sex

cells, testes & ovaries also
produce and secrete sex
hormones with the onset of
puberty.
● The sexual mode of reproduction means that
germ-cells from two individuals have to join together.
● If animals are to participate in this process of mating,
their state of sexual maturity must be identifiable by
other individuals.
● Changes during puberty are signals that sexual
maturation is taking place.
● The act of mating between the male and female partner
is termed as copulation.

Male Reproductive System

● Male reproductive system consists of the following
components:
➢1 pair of testes
➢A system of ducts
➔Epididymis.
➔Vas deferens or the sperm duct.
➔Urethra.
➢A system of glands
➔Seminal vesicles.
➔Prostate gland.
➔Cowper’s gland.
➢A copulatory organ called a penis.
● Testes:
➢One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure
called scrotum which lies outside the abdominal cavity.
➢Testes are located inside the scrotum because sperm
formation (spermatogenesis) requires a lower
temperature than the normal body temperature.
➢Functions of testes:
➔To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.
➔To produce a male reproductive hormone called
testosterone which is responsible for producing
sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in
males.

● Epididymis:
➢Attached to each testis.
➢Highly coiled tube.
➢The sperms are stored and they mature in the
epididymis.
➢Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the
vas-deferens.

● Vas-deferens:
➢The sperms formed are delivered through the vas
deferens which unites with a duct coming from the
urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra
which passes through the penis and opens to the
outside.
➢Function of the vas-deferens:
➔Passage of the sperms in the male body.
➢Functions of the glands:
➔Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the
prostate, the seminal vesicles and cowper’s gland
 add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a
fluid.
➔The secretions of the three glands along with the
sperms is known as semen.
➔Semen makes transport of sperms easier and it
provides nutrition.
Function of the urethra:
➔It is the common passage for both semen and urine
from the body to. the outside.

● Penis:
➢It is the organ which is used to introduce semen into
the female body.
➢It is richly supplied with blood vessels.

● Sperms:
➢Tiny bodies that consist of genetic material.
➢It has a long tail that helps them to move towards the
female germ-cell.

Female Reproductive System

● Female reproductive system consists of the following
components
➢1 pair of ovaries.
➢1 pair of fallopian tubes or oviducts.
➢A uterus/womb.
➢A vagina/birth canal.
● Ovaries:
➢These are oval shaped organs located one on each
side of the lower abdomen.
➢At the time of birth each girl child already contains
thousands of immature ova.
➢These ova start maturing only from the time of puberty.
➢Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month
and each ovary releases an ovum in alternate months.
➢The release of an ovum from the ovary into the
abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.
➢Functions of ovary:
➔To produce and release ova.
➔To produce female reproductive hormones: oestrogen
and progesterone.

● Fallopian tube (or) Oviduct:

➢There are two fallopian tubes.
➢The end lying close to the ovary has finger-like
structures called fimbriae.
➢The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic
bag-like structure called uterus.
➢Function of the fallopian tubes:
➔The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb
through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.
➔It is the site of fertilization between the male and the
female gametes and formation of the zygote early
embryo.

● Uterus:
➢The inner lining of the uterus is richly supplied with
blood vessels and is known as endometrium.
➢Function of the uterus:
 ➔The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down
and gets attached to the endometrium (implantation)
and develops for the next nine months till the baby is
delivered.

● Vagina:
➢The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
➢The vagina is a muscular tube through which the baby
is delivered at the end of nine months
➢It also serves as the canal for receiving the semen at
the time of copulation.

Male Reproductive Female Reproductive

System System
Primary Sex Pair of Testes. Pair of Ovaries.
Organ
Secondary Sex Accessory Ducts & Fallopian Tubes,
Organ Glands. Uterus, Cervix &
Vagina.

Fertilisation in Humans
● The semen is discharged into the vaginal tract during
copulation.
● The sperms travel upwards & reach the oviduct where
they may encounter the egg (insemination).
● In the fallopian tube, one sperm fuses with the ovum to
form the zygote (2n).
● The zygote starts dividing and forms a ball of cells or
embryo.
● The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus
where they continue to grow and develop organs to
become a foetus. (gestation)
● Uterus prepares itself every month to receive and
nurture the growing embryo. The lining thickens and is
richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.

Placenta
● The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with
the help of a special tissue called placenta.
● This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall.
● It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on
the mother’s side blood spaces surround the villi.
● This provides a large surface area for glucose and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
● The developing embryo will also generate waste
substances which can be removed by transferring them
into the mother’s blood through the placenta.

Gestation Period
● The time period from fertilization upto the birth of the
baby is called Gestation Period.
● In humans, it is about nine months (36 weeks).
● The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of
the muscles in the uterus.

What happens when the Egg is not Fertilised?

● If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.
● Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the
uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a
fertilised egg.
● Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy.
● This would be required for nourishing the embryo if
fertilisation had taken place.
● Now, however, this lining is not needed any longer.
● So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the
vagina as blood and mucous.
● This cycle takes place roughly every month and is
known as menstruation.
● It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Menopause
● The sexual cycle (menstruation) in a woman continues
upto the age of 45-50 years.
● After that the ovaries do not release eggs.
● This stage is called menopause.
● It marks the end of the reproductive life of a woman.

Reproductive Health
● Reproductive Health means a total well-being in all
aspects of reproductive, i.e., physical, emotional, social
and behavioural.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s)

● A number of diseases occur as a result of sexual
intercourse if one of the partners is infected.
● These are known as sexually transmitted diseases
(STD’s).
● They can be caused by:
➢Bacteria: syphilis, gonorrhoea.
➢Virus: HIV-AIDS, warts.
● The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by
using birth control measures such as wearing a
condom during the sexual act.

Contraception
● Contraception is the avoidance of pregnancy.
● They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.
● Mechanical methods/ Physical barriers: These are
used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian
tube.
➢Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes worn
over the penis before sexual intercourse. The semen
gets collected in this and is not discharged into the
vagina.
➢Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible
metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in a woman’s
body by a doctor. It causes side effects.
➢Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) (Copper-T or
loop): It is inserted in the uterus and its insertion
causes certain secretion which prevents the
implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall. It
causes side effects.

● Chemical methods:
➢Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing
chemicals available in the form of creams, jellies etc.
which are injected into the vagina just before
copulation.
➢Oral contraceptive pills (OCs): These are hormonal
pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation. It causes side effects.

● Surgical methods:
➢Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas
deferens in males. Sperm transfer will be prevented.
➢Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the fallopian
tubes in females. Egg will not be able to reach the
uterus.
➢Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions:
It is carried out to eliminate the developing embryo.
 This practice can, however, be misused to carry out
female foeticide which involves the killing of the female
foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs
the male-female ratio in a population.

What are the drawbacks of overpopulation?

● Reproduction is the process by which organisms
increase their populations.
● The rates of birth and death in a given population will
determine its size.
● The size of the human population is a cause for
concern for many people.
● This is because an expanding population makes it
harder to improve everybody’s standard of living.
● However, if inequality in society is the main reason for
poor standards of living for many people, the size of the
population is relatively unimportant.

Activity 8.1:
Dissolve about 10 gm of sugar in 100 mL of water.
Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube and add a
pinch of yeast granules to it.
Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep
it in a warm place.
After 1 or 2 hours, put a small drop of yeast culture from
the test tube on a slide and cover it with a coverslip.
Observe the slide under a microscope.

Observation: Under the microscope, we see yeast

reproducing by forming buds.
Presence of sugar in solution acts as a favourable
medium to the yeast as it provides them with a source
of energy. Here Yeast utilises sugar and forms Alcohol
with the release of carbon dioxide.

Application: In raising dough, we first increase the

number of yeast by adding yeast to a warm sugar
solution. This solution raises the dough faster.

Activity 8.2:
Wet a slice of bread, and keep it in a cool, moist and
dark place.
Observe the surface of the slice with a magnifying glass.
Record your observations for a week.

Observation: Rhizopus sporulate and releases new

spores from sporangium.

Explanation: Just like sugar favours yeast,

carbohydrates in bread and presence of water favours
rhizopus. Rhizopus is a fungus which looks green and
black. We also call them bread mould.
Rhizopus in a moist environment grows rapidly and
multiplies by spore formation. The green mould which
we see in stale bread is because of the fast growth and
reproduction of Rhizopus.

Activity 8.3:
Observe a permanent slide of Amoeba under a
microscope.
Similarly observe another permanent slide of Amoeba
showing binary fission.
Now, compare the observations of both the slides.

Observation: We see that amoeba divides with different

planes in a separate slide.

Explanation: Amoeba is the simplest unicellular

organism. It does not have any shape, complex
structure or organs for sexual reproduction. Its nuclear
material doubles and the cell simply divides in any
plane. We call this process binary fission.

Activity 8.4:
Collect water from a lake or pond that appears dark
green and contains filamentous structures.
Put one or two filaments on a slide.
Put a drop of glycerine on these filaments and cover it
with a coverslip.
Observe the slide under a microscope.
Can you identify different tissues in the Spirogyra
filaments?

Observation: We see small fragments of Spirogyra in

the microscope.
Explanation: Spirogyra is a filamentous green alga. It is
commonly found in freshwater. Its long filament breaks
into smaller filament and develops into new filament. We
call this mode of reproduction as Fragmentation.

Activity 8.5:
Take a potato and observe its surface. Can notches be
seen?
Cut the potato into small pieces such that some pieces
contain a notch or bud and some do not.
Spread some cotton on a tray and wet it. Place the
potato pieces on this cotton. Note where the pieces with
the buds are placed.
Observe changes taking place in these potato pieces
over the next few days. Make sure that the cotton is kept
moistened.
Which are the potato pieces that give rise to fresh green
shoots and roots?

Observation: Potato parts with at least one bud grows

into a plant while potato without any bud does not
survive.

Explanation: The tuber part of potato which we use in

the kitchen is a modified stem. It reproduces by
vegetative propagation. Farmers sow the potato tuber
into the soil which grows into a full plant with multiple
tubers.
Buds of potatoes are in fact the growing stems. If it is left
alone, potato sprout and develop into a full plant. So
when we cut a potato into parts, Only those parts which
contain at least a bud grows.
Inference/Conclusion: We call this mode of
reproduction vegetative propagation. Vegetative
reproduction is a common method which we use in
plants like potato, rose, mango, etc.

Activity 8.6:
Select a money-plant. n Cut some pieces such that they
contain at least one leaf.
Cut out some other portions between two leaves.
Dip one end of all the pieces in water and observe over
the next few days.
Which ones grow and give rise to fresh leaves?
What can you conclude from your observations?

Observation: Money plant with at least one leaf

survives while money plant without leaf dies.

Explanation: Money plant is a perennial plant from the

Asian region. We call it a money plant because its leaf
resembles a coin.
Like other plants, the money plant can also reproduce
through vegetative propagation.
When we cut this plant into parts, it survives by doing
photosynthesis. But if the cut part does not contain any
leaf the plant is unable to photosynthesize and produce
own food. As a result, the plant becomes yellow and
eventually dies.

Activity 8.7:
Soak a few seeds of Bengal gram (chana) and keep
them overnight.
Drain the excess water and cover the seeds with a wet
cloth and leave them for a day. Make sure that the
seeds do not become dry.
Cut open the seeds carefully and observe the different
parts.
Compare your observations with the Fig. 8.9 and see if
you can identify all the parts.

Observation: Two cotyledons of the seed become

distinguishable with the formation of radicle and
plumule.

Explanation: On soaking water, a seed breaks its

dormancy and starts growing. A small white tip emerges
from the seed which we call Radicle. Radicle, later on,
develop into the root.
After a few days of radicle formation, another white
structure comes out from the joint of seed. We call this
Plumule. Plumule later becomes greenish and develop
into the shoot.

Inference/Conclusion: This experiment shows that a

plant reproduces sexually to form seeds.

1. What is the importance of DNA copying in

reproduction?
Ans: DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic
material that is present in the cells of all organisms. DNA
carries genetic information from one generation to the
other and this helps in producing organisms of its own
types. DNA copying is a must for inheriting the traits
from parents. Any variations in DNA copying will give
rise to the origin of new species.
 2. Why is the variation beneficial to the species but
not necessarily for the individual?
Ans: The reason why the variation is beneficial to the
species than individuals is because sometimes the
climatic changes have a drastic effect on the species,
which makes their survival difficult. For example, if the
temperature of the water body increases, then there
might be certain species of microorganisms which might
die. This may result in disturbance in the environment.
So, variation is beneficial to species and not for the
individuals.

3. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces

through spores?
Ans: Following are the ways through which an organism
will be benefited if it reproduces through spores:
● Spores can remain dormant till favourable conditions
become available.
● Spores dispersed easily.
● Spores can be spread through water, air, or animals
and thus is good for the spread of an organism to more
places.
● Organisms do not waste their energy in producing male
and female gametes, as it is a type of asexual
reproduction.

4. Can you think of reasons why more complex

organisms cannot give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?
Ans: Organisms at higher complex levels cannot give
rise to new individuals through regeneration because
they have organization of their organs system at
 different levels. All these organ systems are
interconnected and work in full coordination. They can
regenerate a few of their lost body parts like skin, blood,
muscles, etc. but can’t give rise to new individuals.

5. Why is vegetative propagation practised for

growing some types of plants?
Ans: Following are the advantages of practising
vegetative propagation for growing some types of plants:
● Crops like orange, banana, pineapple do not have
viable seeds, so vegetative propagation can be used.
● It is a rapid, cheap and easier method to grow crops.
● It can be used in places where seed germination fails.
● A good quality of variety can be preserved.

6. Why is DNA copying an essential part of the

process of reproduction?
Ans: DNA copying is an essential part of the process of
reproduction because it carries the genetic information
from the parents to offspring. A copy of DNA is produced
through some chemical reactions resulting in two copies
of DNA. Along with the additional cellular structure, DNA
copying also takes place which is then followed by cell
division into two cells.

7. If a woman is using a Copper-T, will it help in

protecting her from sexually transmitted diseases?
Ans: No, because usage of copper-T cannot stop the
contact of body fluids. Hence, it cannot protect her from
getting sexually transmitted diseases.

8. What could be the reason for adopting

contraceptive methods?
 Ans: Following are the reasons for adopting
contraceptive methods:
● To control population.
● To avoid unplanned pregnancy.
● To avoid transfer of sexually transmitted diseases.