ENAL 522: SEMANTICS

STUDY NOTES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

(i) demonstrate understanding that semantics is a systematic, coherent level of

linguistic description;

Semantics is indeed a systematic and coherent level of linguistic description. It involves the
study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey
meaning. Semantics examines the relationships between signifiers, such as words and
phrases, and what they stand for or represent in reality. This level of linguistic analysis is
crucial for understanding how language users comprehend, interpret, and produce meaningful
communication.

Key Aspects of Semantics:

1. Lexical Semantics: Studies the meanings of words and the relationships between
them, such as synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms.
2. Compositional Semantics: Examines how individual word meanings combine in
sentences to produce overall sentence meaning.
3. Pragmatics: Considers how context influences meaning and how speakers use
language to achieve communication goals.
4. Semantic Roles: Analyzes the functions of entities in a sentence, such as agent,
patient, and instrument.
5. Ambiguity and Polysemy: Investigates how words or phrases with multiple
meanings are interpreted based on context.

Semantics provides a structured framework for understanding and describing how meaning
operates in language, making it an essential component of linguistic analysis

(ii) use systems of notation as essential tools in the accurate representation of

meaning;

In Semantics, systems of notation are essential tools for accurately representing meaning by
providing a structured and standardized way to express complex linguistic concepts. These
notations help in analyzing, comparing, and conveying the subtleties of meaning in language
with precision. Here's how they can be utilized:

1. Formal Language Representation

  Logical Notation: Formal languages, such as predicate logic, are often used in
semantics to represent the meaning of sentences. Logical notation helps in breaking
down complex sentences into their logical components (e.g., predicates, subjects,
objects), allowing for a precise analysis of how meaning is constructed.
o Example: The sentence "All dogs bark" can be represented as ∀x (Dog(x) →
Bark(x)), where ∀x denotes "for all x," and the arrow (→) represents
implication.

2. Truth-Conditional Semantics

 Tarski’s Notation: Truth-conditional semantics uses formal notation to express the

conditions under which a sentence is true or false. This approach is crucial for
understanding how the meaning of a sentence corresponds to the world.
o Example: The truth condition for "The cat is on the mat" might be represented
as true if, in the model, the object referred to as "the cat" is located on the
object referred to as "the mat."

3. Lambda Calculus

 Function Application and Abstraction: In the analysis of meaning, especially in

compositional semantics, lambda calculus is used to represent functions and their
applications. This notation is critical for modeling how different parts of a sentence
combine to form its overall meaning.
o Example: The verb phrase "loves Mary" can be represented as λx. Love(x,
Mary), where λx denotes a function that takes an argument x and returns the
result of the function Love(x, Mary).

4. Montague Grammar

 Translation Between Syntax and Semantics: Montague Grammar employs a formal

notation system to translate syntactic structures into semantic representations. This
helps in maintaining a consistent link between the form of a sentence and its meaning.
o Example: A sentence structure might be translated into a logical formula that
accurately reflects its intended meaning in a formal system.

5. Feature Structures

 Representation of Lexical Semantics: Feature structures use notation systems to

represent the semantic properties of words, such as tense, aspect, and case. These
structures are essential for capturing the detailed meaning of words within sentences.
o Example: A feature structure for the word "runs" might include features like
[+Tense: Present, +Aspect: Progressive], helping to clarify its meaning in
context.

6. Semantic Networks and Conceptual Graphs

 Visual Notation: Semantic networks and conceptual graphs use visual notations to
represent relationships between concepts. These tools are crucial for mapping out how
different ideas and meanings are interconnected.
 o Example: A conceptual graph might depict the relationship between "dog" and
"bark" with nodes and edges, representing the subject-predicate relationship in
a sentence.

7. Type Theory

 Classification of Meanings: In semantics, type theory uses notation to classify

expressions according to their semantic types (e.g., entities, truth values, functions).
This classification is vital for understanding how different types of expressions
interact within sentences.
o Example: The notation might classify "John" as an entity of type e and "runs"
as a function of type e → t (from entities to truth values).

These systems of notation, by providing a clear, unambiguous way to represent meaning, are
indispensable in semantic analysis. They allow for rigorous examination and facilitate
communication of complex ideas within the field of linguistics

(iii) show their familiarity with the historical background to modern studies of
meaning, and with the differing perspectives of the various approaches;

Understanding the historical background to modern studies of meaning and the differing
perspectives of various approaches is essential for grasping the development and nuances of
semantics. Here's an overview:

Historical Background:

1. Ancient Philosophers:
o Plato and Aristotle: Early discussions on the nature of meaning and
reference. Plato's theory of forms and Aristotle's categories laid the
groundwork for understanding how language relates to reality.
2. Medieval Scholastics:
o Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham: Further developed ideas about
meaning, focusing on the relationship between language, thought, and reality.
3. Modern Philosophy:
o John Locke: Proposed that words signify ideas in the mind of the speaker,
introducing the notion of a mental representation of meaning.
o Gottlob Frege: Distinguished between sense (Sinn) and reference
(Bedeutung), which became foundational in modern semantics.

Differing Perspectives:

1. Structuralism:
o Ferdinand de Saussure: Emphasized the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign
(signifier and signified) and the importance of the structural relationships
between signs in a language system.
2. Generative Semantics:
 o Noam Chomsky: Introduced transformational-generative grammar, focusing
on the syntactic structures that underpin sentence meaning. His work led to the
development of generative semantics, which seeks to explain how deep
structures convey meaning.
3. Formal Semantics:
o Richard Montague: Applied mathematical logic to natural language,
developing Montague grammar, which uses formal tools to model the
semantics of natural language.
4. Cognitive Semantics:
o George Lakoff and Mark Johnson: Emphasized the role of human cognition
and embodied experience in shaping meaning. Concepts like metaphor and
mental spaces are central to this approach.
5. Pragmatics:
o Paul Grice: Developed theories about how context and conversational
implicature influence meaning. His cooperative principle and maxims of
conversation are key contributions.
o John Searle: Expanded on speech act theory, exploring how utterances
perform actions and convey meaning through their use in context.
6. Lexical Semantics:
o Ray Jackendoff: Investigated the mental lexicon and how words are stored
and accessed in the mind, contributing to our understanding of word meaning
and relationships.

Key Concepts and Theories:

1. Sense and Reference:

o Differentiation between the meaning of a term (sense) and what it refers to in
the world (reference).
2. Speech Act Theory:
o Explores how utterances can perform actions (e.g., promising, ordering) and
how meaning is often derived from the speaker's intentions and context.
3. Prototype Theory:
o Suggests that concepts are organized around best examples (prototypes) rather
than strict definitions, emphasizing the flexibility and variability of meaning.
4. Frame Semantics:
o Developed by Charles Fillmore, this theory proposes that meaning is
understood in terms of structures of knowledge (frames) that provide context
for interpreting words and sentences.

By examining these historical and theoretical perspectives, we gain a comprehensive

understanding of how the study of meaning has evolved and the diverse approaches that
contribute to our current knowledge in semantics.

(iv) show, through analysis of their own multilingual experience, that semantic
categories are not universal but are culturally determined.
Semantic categories are often culturally determined and not universal. This can be illustrated
through the analysis of multilingual experiences, highlighting how different languages
conceptualize the world in unique ways. Here are some examples:

Color Terms:

 English vs. Russian: In English, there are distinct terms for "blue" and "green."
However, in Russian, there are two different words for blue: "голубой" (goluboy) for
light blue and "синий" (siniy) for dark blue. This distinction influences how Russian
speakers perceive and categorize colors compared to English speakers.

Kinship Terms:

 English vs. Chinese: In English, the term "uncle" refers to both maternal and paternal
uncles. In Chinese, specific terms distinguish between maternal uncle (舅舅, jiùjiu) and
paternal uncle (叔叔, shūshu). This specificity reflects cultural importance placed on
familial roles and relationships in Chinese culture.

Spatial Relationships:

 English vs. Guugu Yimithirr: English speakers typically use egocentric coordinates
(left, right, front, back) to describe spatial relationships. In contrast, the Australian
Aboriginal language Guugu Yimithirr uses cardinal directions (north, south, east,
west) for all spatial descriptions. This difference indicates a culturally influenced way
of perceiving and interacting with the environment.

Emotional States:

 English vs. Japanese: The English word "anger" encompasses a broad range of
emotions. In Japanese, there are multiple words for different shades of anger, such as
"怒り" (ikari) for intense anger and "腹立つ" (haradatsu) for irritation. This linguistic
distinction reveals cultural nuances in expressing and understanding emotions.

Temporal Concepts:

 English vs. Hopi: English conceptualizes time in linear terms (past, present, future).
The Hopi language, spoken by Native American Hopi people, reportedly treats time in
a more cyclic and event-oriented manner, without a strict separation between past,
present, and future. This reflects different cultural perceptions of time.

Examples from Personal Multilingual Experience:

1. Color Perception:
o As a bilingual speaker of English and Korean, I notice how color categories
differ. Korean has a distinct word for a bluish-green color, 청록색
(cheongnoksaek), which doesn’t have a direct equivalent in English. This
affects how I perceive and categorize colors in each language.
2. Cultural Concepts:
o Growing up speaking both English and Hindi, I found that the concept of
"respect" differs significantly. In Hindi, "सम्मान" (sammaan)
 encompasses not only respect but also honor and reverence, particularly
towards elders, reflecting the cultural emphasis on hierarchical relationships.
3. Idiomatic Expressions:
o Speaking both French and English, I observed how idiomatic expressions
convey different cultural connotations. For example, the French phrase "avoir
le cafard" (literally, "to have the cockroach") means to feel down or depressed,
which doesn’t translate directly to English but captures a culturally specific
way of expressing sadness.

These examples demonstrate that semantic categories are not universal but are shaped by
cultural contexts and linguistic frameworks. Understanding these differences enriches our
comprehension of how language influences thought and perception.