The concept of “OLD “has changed

drastically over the years. Our

prehistoric ancestors probably had a life
span of 400 years, with the average
individual living around 180 years. As
civilization developed
,mortality rates remained high as a
result of periodic famine and frequent
malnutrition

• Ageing or aging is the process of

becoming older. Aging is associated
with changes in dynamic Biological,
physiological Genetic Theory- aging is an involuntary
,environmental, psychological inherited process that operates over
,Behavioral time to alter cellular or tissue structure
and social processes. •This theory suggests that life span and
longevity changes
• Gerontology is the study of the are predetermined
aging process.

Geriatrics is the branch of clinical 2. Wear and Tear Theory - Free radicals
medicine specializing in problems ,which are the waste products of
of the elderly. metabolism, accumulate and cause
damage to important biological
Geropsychiatry is the branch of structures
clinical medicine specializing in According to this theory ,these free
psychopathology of the radicals cause DNA damage ,cross-
elderly population linkage of collagen and the
accumulation of age pigment
• A number of theories related to
the aging process have been described. 3. Environmental - According to this
theory ,factors in the environment e.g.;
• These theories are grouped into Industrial carcinogens sunlight ,trauma
2 broad categories. They are: and infection bring about changes in the
aging process
Biological theories attempt to
explain the physical, process of aging 4. Immunity - It describes the age –
,including molecular and cellular related decline in the immune system.
changes in the major organ systems •As people age, their ability to, defend
against foreign organisms decreases,
resulting in susceptibility
to diseases such as cancer and
infection

5. Neuro Endocrine-This theory

proposes that aging occurs because of
a slowing of the secretion of certain this withdrawal process is predictable,
hormones that have an impact on systemic inevitable and necessary for
reactions regulated by the nervous the proper functioning of a growing
system. society
•This is demonstrated by pituitary gland,
thyroid ,adrenals and the glands of 3. Activity Theory - This theory holds
reproduction that the maintenance of activities is
Important to most people as a basis for
giving and sustaining satisfaction, self-
esteem and health

4. Continuity Theory - It emphasis the

individuals previously established
coping abilities and personal character
traits as a basis for predicting how the
person will adjust

Psychosocial theories focus on social

and psychological Changes that
accompany advancing age, as opposed
to the biological implications of anatomic
deterioration

Psychosocial theory contains 4 major

theories
Biological Aspects of Aging
1. Personality Theory •Individuals are unique in their physical
It address aspects of psychological and psychological aging process, as
growth without delineating specific tasks influenced by their predisposition and
or expectations of older adults. resistance to illness, the effects of their
Some evidence suggests that external environment and Behaviors and
personality characteristics in Old age the health and illness practices they
are highly correlated with early life have adopted during their life span
characteristics
SKIN
•Loss of elastin in the skin ,changes in
2. Disengagement Theory - Describes collagen causes aged skin to
the process of withdrawal by older wrinkle and sag
adults from social roles and
responsibilities. According to the theory, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
•Loss of pacemaker cells, decrease in
maximal heart rate, diminished output
•Decreased elasticity of heart valves

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
•Decreased vital capacity, diminished
Cough reflex and laryngeal reflex,
Decreased pulmonary blood flow

in virtually all cultures share some

GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM basic needs and interests:
•Altered absorption from GI tract, want protection from hazards
constipation, reduction in dentine release from the weariness of
production, shrinkage and fibrosis of everyday tasks
root pulp want to die with the same respect and
dignity
GENITOURINARY AND
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Cultural stereotypes play a large in the
•Decreased glomerular filtration rate, misperception
hardness of erection ,decreased vaginal many people hold regarding sexuality of
lubrication ,enlargement of prostate , older adults
constipation
PHYSICAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM WITH SEXUALITY
•Decreased in height because of IN WOMEN :
shortening of spinal column(2 inches) Decline in ovarian function,
,reduction in muscle strength, Reduced production of estrogen
loss of bone matrix Vaginal dryness
Menopausal symptoms (hot flashes,
ENDOCRINE night sweats, sleeplessness ,irritability,
•Estrogen levels decreases in women mood swings)
,testosterone decreases in men,
increases in follicle-stimulating hormone
and leutinizing hormone IN MEN :
Decline in testosterone production
IMMUNE SYSTEM Erectile dysfunction
•Increased susceptibility of infection Decrease in testicular size
Decrease in amount of ejaculate
SPECIAL SENSES
•Thickening of optic lens ,reduced SPECIAL CONCERN OF ELDERLY
peripheral vision, inability to POPULATION
accommodate ,reduced acuity
of taste ,smell and touch RETIREMENT
 Retirement cause negative reactions risk-management strategy for one’s
to bring retired, feelings of being own well-being
unproductive ,economic hardship and Health-span in relation to lifespan
loneliness Successful Ageing is not a denial of
Retirement has both social and the
economic implication for ageing process
Elderly individuals

ELDER ABUSE
Abuse of elderly individuals may be “Successful Ageing is defined as the
-Psychological ability to maintain low risk of disease or
-Physical disability, high mental & physical
-Financial function, and active
engagement with life.”
PSYCHOLOGICAL ABUSE
Yelling
Insulting The human body essentially lives in a
Harsh commands hostile environment, both externally and
Threats and social isolation internally.
Modern medicine has developed as a
PHYSICAL ABUSE repair response to
Striking ‘breakdown’ or damage, rather
Beating and restraints than as a preventative action.

Many of the chronic diseases of mature

FINANCIAL ABUSE age are preceded by signs (albeit silent
Misuse or theft of finances signs) For example:
several psychosocial risk factors • increase in blood pressure
predispose older people to mental • increase in BMI or abdominal
disorders fat
risk factors include: • blood sugar increase
loss of social roles ,loss of autonomy, • decrease in function of lung,
1.death of friends and relatives kidneys
2.declining health, increased isolation, • decrease in bone density &
3.financial constraints and muscle mass.
4.decreased cognitive functioning
These signs of ageing are often
accepted as ‘usual’ in the mature
individual; however, research has now
SUCESSFUL AGING established these ‘usual’ conditions are
caused in large part by our pathology –
What Does the Research Say? how we live – and not only by our
biology – our genes.
Maximizing functions as a person
reach the old age Maintaining Physical &
Minimizing the ‘period of morbidity’ Cognitive Function
 1. Episodic Memory
The 1% Rule •When a person recalls a particular
Medical scientists have previously event (or “episode”) experienced in the
agreed that after age 25, we lose 1% past, that is episodic memory.
per year in aerobic capacity, strength, •The examples of Episodic Memory are
speed and other physical attributes. as follows:
•Your first day of school
•Your last birthday celebration
It is now increasingly clear that it •A family vacation to the beach
doesn’t have to be that way. •Attending a friend’s wedding
The 1% rule applies only to those who •Graduating from high school
lead a sedentary life.
2. Semantic Memory
•Semantic memory is someone’s long-
Physical activity is at the crux of term store of knowledge. It is composed
successful ageing, regardless of other of pieces of information such as facts
factors. learned in school, what concepts mean
and how they are related, or the
Couch potatoes are now being grouped definition of a particular word.
with cigarette smokers as taking their •The examples of Semantic Memory are
lives in their own hands. as follows:
•Knowing that Paris is the capital of
The dominant effect of fitness over other France
risk factors, and its apparent effect as •Understanding that water is composed
an antidote for other risk factors, makes of hydrogen and oxygen
physical fitness perhaps the single most •Recalling that a triangle has three sides
important thing an older person can do •Remembering that the color red
to remain healthy. signifies danger
•Knowing that the Earth orbits around
the sun
Maintaining Cognitive Function
Cognitive ability is not one function.
Research indicates 2 areas of change in 3. Procedural Memory
cognitive performance as we age: •The term describes long-term memory
Speed of processing information for how to do things, both physical and
Certain types of memory. mental, and is involved in the process of
learning skills—from the basic ones
Explicit memory is affected with ageing people take for granted to those that
i.e. memory which involves the intention require considerable practice.
to remember & the subsequent ability to •The examples of Procedural Memory
recall information on demand. are as follows:
Research shows other kinds of memory •Riding a bicycle
show little change in capacity with age. •Typing on a keyboard
•Tying shoelaces
TYPES OF MEMORY •Playing a musical instrument
•Swimming
4. Short-term Memory and Working
Memory
•both refer to storage of information for a Working memory, on the other hand,
brief amount of time. goes beyond mere storage of the
instruction. It involves actively
•While short-term memory involves the manipulating and using the information.
temporary storage of information for So, as you attach piece A to piece B,
immediate use, typically holding a your working memory is engaged in
limited amount of information for a short holding onto the previous step (“Attach
duration, working memory encompasses piece A to piece B”) while also
not only the temporary storage of integrating it with the next step (“Attach
information but also the active piece C to piece D”). Additionally,
manipulation and processing of that working memory enables you to
information to facilitate cognitive tasks mentally visualize the process,
such as problem-solving and anticipate upcoming steps, and make
comprehension. Additionally, working decisions about how to proceed, such
memory includes executive control as determining which screws to use or
processes like attention and decision- which side of the pieces to align.
making, making it more dynamic and
essential for higher-order cognitive
functions compared to the more passive •The examples of Working Memory are
nature of short-term memory. as follows:
•Following instructions while assembling
•For example, Short-term memory furniture.
(STM) comes into play when you read •Mentally calculating a tip while paying
the first step of the instructions and for a meal at a restaurant.
briefly hold that information in your mind Solving a math problem by holding
while you perform the action. For intermediate steps in mind.
example, you read •Reading a passage and summarizing
•The examples of Short-term Memory the main points without referring back to
are as follows: the text.
•Remembering a phone number just •Listening to a lecture and taking notes
long enough to dial it. simultaneously.
•Recalling a shopping list while walking
through the grocery store. 5. Sensory Memory
•Retaining a password while logging into •Sensory memories are what
an account. psychologists call the short-term
•Holding a conversation and memories of just-experienced sensory
remembering the topic discussed a few stimuli such as sights and sounds. The
minutes ago. brief memory of something just seen
•Recalling the directions to a nearby has been called iconic memory, while
location while driving. the sound-based equivalent is called
echoic memory. Additional forms of
short-term sensory memory are thought
to exist for the other senses as well.
 •Remembering to buy groceries on the
•Sense-related memories can also be way home from work
preserved long-term. Visual-spatial •Recollecting to wish a friend a happy
memory refers to memory of how birthday on the appropriate day
objects are organized in space— tapped •Remembering to pay bills before they
when a person remembers which way to are due
walk to get to the grocery store. Auditory
memory, olfactory memory, and haptic 7. Implicit and Explicit memory
memory are terms for stored sensory •Implicit and Explicit are both types of
long-term memory. The information we
store or remember unconsciously is
called implicit memory, while the
•The examples of Sensory Memory are information we memorize consciously is
as follows: known as explicit memory.
•Briefly remembering the sight of a •The examples of Implicit are as follows:
passing car •Riding a bicycle without consciously
•Recalling the sound of a door slamming recalling how
shut •Reacting with fear to a traumatic event
•Remembering the smell of freshly without consciously recalling the details
baked bread •The examples of Explicit Memory are
•Feeling the sensation of warm sunlight as follows:
on your skin •Recalling the names of the U.S.
•Recollecting the taste of a delicious presidents
meal •Remembering your childhood address
•Recalling the plot of a book you read
6. Prospective Memory last month
•Prospective memory is forward-thinking
memory. It means recalling an intention 8. Long-term Memory
from the past in order to do something in •Long-term memory is a type of memory
the future. It is essential for daily that persists over time, ranging from
functioning, in that memories of previous minutes to years. It refers to the storage
intentions, including very recent ones, of information for an extended period,
ensure that people potentially indefinitely.
execute their plans and meet their
obligations when the intended behaviors •In addition to above categorization, the
can’t be carried out right away, or have Memory can be classified in terms of
to be carried out routinely. Long-term Memory as: (i) declarative or
explicit memory and (ii) non-declarative
•The examples of Prospective Memory or implicit memory, which are explained
are as follows: below.

•Remembering to attend a scheduled •I. Declarative memory or Explicit

meeting later in the day memory
•Recalling to take medication at a •When we assess memory by asking a
specific time person to consciously remember things,
we are measuring explicit memory.
Explicit memory refers to knowledge or
experiences that can be consciously •2. Classical conditioning effects entail
remembered. the unconscious association of neutral
stimuli with other stimuli, leading to
•There are 2 types of explicit memory: natural responses such as pleasure or
episodic and semantic. salivation. Through this form of learning,
a conditioned stimulus, like a sound,
•1. Episodic memory refers to the elicits a response similar to the
firsthand experiences that we have had unconditioned stimulus, such as food,
(e.g., recollections of our high school after the association is formed.
graduation day or of the fantastic dinner
we had in New York last year). •3. Priming, the third type of implicit
•2. Semantic memory refers to our memory, involves changes in behavior
knowledge of facts and concepts about due to frequent or recent experiences. It
the world (e.g., that the absolute value encompasses both the activation of
of knowledge (e.g., presenting words
−90 is greater than the absolute value related to kindness to prime the
of 9 and that one definition of the word concept) and the subsequent impact of
“affect” is “the experience of feeling or this activation on behavior (e.g.,
emotion”). individuals primed with kindness may
exhibit more compassionate actions).

II. Implicit memory

•Implicit memory refers to the influence • More than 50% of decline of cognitive
of experience on behavior, even if the function in older age is determined by
individual is not aware of those genetic factors (more than other
influences. There are 3 general types of functions). However, this still leaves
implicit memory: procedural memory, considerable influence for lifestyle
classical conditioning effects, and factors.
priming.
Direct contributors to maintaining
•1.Procedural memory involves our cognitive function:
subconscious knowledge of how to Learning
perform tasks. Physical Activity
•Examples include walking, speaking a Self-Efficacy
language, operating a phone, or playing Complex Environments
a video game. While we may not be Mild Stress
able to articulate these processes, Nutrition
procedural memory enables us to
execute complex actions effortlessly.
This concept sheds light on how infants
acquire fundamental skills like crawling
and talking, which are ingrained during
childhood without conscious recollection
in adulthood.