CHAPTER 1

THE CELL THEORY, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

INTRODUCTION
All organisms are composed of structural and functional units of life called ‘cells’. The body of
some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae are made up of a single cell whereas
the body of higher fungi, plants and animals are composed of many cells. Human body is built of
about one trillion cells. Cells vary in size and structure as they are specialized to perform
different functions. But the basic components of the cell are common to all biological cells. This
lesson deals with the structure common to all types of the cells. You will also learn about the
kinds of cell division and the processes involved therein in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
 justify that cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms;
 list the components of the cell and state cell theory;
 differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells;
 differentiate between plant and animal cells;
 illustrate the structure of plant and animal cells by drawing labelled diagrams;
 describe the structure and functions of cell organelles;
 justify the need for cell division;
 describe various phases of cell cycle;

1. THE CELL AND CELL THEORY

A) Landmarks in the study of a cell
Soon after Anton Van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope, Robert Hooke in1665 observed a
piece of cork under the microscope and found it to be made of small compartments which he
called “cells” (Latin cell = small room). In 1672, Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria, sperms and
red blood corpuscles, all of which were cells. Much later, in 1831, Robert Brown, an Englishman
observed that all cells had a centrally positioned body which he termed the nucleus.

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B) The cell theory
In 1838 M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann formulated the “cell theory.” Which
Maintains that:
 all organisms are composed of cells.
 cell is the structural and functional unit of life, and
 cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The cells vary considerably, in shapes and sizes (Fig.4.1). Nerve cells of animalshave long
extensions. They can be several centimeters in length. Muscle cells areelongated in shape. Egg
ofthe ostrich is the largest cell (75 mm). Some plant cellshave thick walls. There is also wide
variation in the number of cells in differentorganisms.
C) The Cell
A cell may be defined as a unit of protoplasm bound by a plasma or cell membraneand
possessing a nucleus. Protoplasm is the life-giving substance and includes thecytoplasm and the
nucleus. The cytoplasm has in it organelles such as ribosomes,mitochondria, golgi bodies,
plastids, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.
Plantcells have in their cytoplasm, large vacuoles containing non-living inclusions likecrystals,
and pigments.
The bacteria have neitherdefined cell organelles nor a well-formed nucleus. But every cell has
three major components:
 plasma membrane
 cytoplasm
 DNA (naked in bacteria) and enclosed by a nuclear membrane in all otherorganisms
Two basic types of cells
Cytologists recognize two basic types of cells. Their differences have beentabulated below in
Organisms which do not possess a well-formed nucleusare prokaryotes such as the bacteria. All
others possess a well-defined nucleus,covered by a nuclear membrane. They are eukaryotes.

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Eukaryotic cell (eu = true, karyon = nucleus) Prokaryotic cell (Pro = early/primitive)

1. Nucleus distinct, with well-formed nuclear 1. Nucleus not distinct, it is in the form of a
membrane. nuclear zone ‘nucleoid’. Nuclear membrane
absent.
2. Double-membraned cell 2. Single-membraned cell bodies like
organelles(Chloroplasts, mitochondria, mesosomes present.Endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleus)and single membraned (Golgi plastids, mitochondria microbodies like
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuole, endoplasm lysosomes, and Golgi body absent.
reticulum) are present.
3. Ribosomes - 80 S 3. Ribosomes - 70 S
4. Distinct compartments in the celli.e. the 4. No compartments.
cytoplasm and the nucleus.
5. Depending upon the species number of 5. There is only one chromosome per cell.
chromosomes per nucleus varies fromtwo to
many.
6. Each chromosome is linear with its two ends 6. The chromosome is circular and remains
free. attached to cell membrane at one point.
7. Each chromosome has one linear double 7. The chromosome has single double-
stranded DNA complexed with histones. strandedcircular DNA molecule and is not
associated with histones.
8. Each chromosome has one centromerethat 8. The chromosome lacks a centromere.
divides a chromosome into twoarms.
However, if the centromere isterminal, the
chromosome would haveonly one arm.

Fig :Prokaryotic Cell

Fig: Eukaryotic Cell

Svedberg unit: When the cell is fractionated or broken down into its components by rotatingin
an ultracentrifuge at different speeds the ribosomes of eukaryotic andprokaryotic cells sediment
(settle down) at different speeds. The coefficient ofsedimentation is represented in Svedberg unit
and is depicted as S.

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 Differences between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell

1. Cellulose cell wall present external to 1. No cell wall, outermost structure is

cellmembrane. cellmembrane or plasma membrane
2. Vacuoles are usually large. 2. Generally, vacuoles are absent and
ifpresent, are usually small.
3. Plastids present. 3. Plastids absent.
4. Golgi body present in the form of unitsknown 4. Golgi body well developed having
as dictyosomes. 2cisternae
5. Centriole absent 5. Centriole present.

2. COMPONENTS OF THE CELL

The major components of the cell are (A) cell membrane, (B) cytoplasm, and (C)nucleus.
A) Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
Each cell has a limiting boundary, the cell membrane, plasma membrane orplasmalemma. It is a
living membrane, outermost in animal cells but internal to cellwall in plant cells.
It is flexible and can fold in (as in food vacuoles of Amoeba) or fold out (as in theformation of
pseudopodia of Amoeba)The plasma membrane is made of proteins and lipids and several
models wereproposed regarding the arrangement of proteins and lipids. The fluid mosaic
modelproposed by Singer and Nicholson (1972) is widely accepted. It is represented inFig 4.3.
According to the fluid mosaic model,
(i) The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer of phospholipid moleculesinto
which a variety of globular proteins are embedded.

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 (ii) Each phospholipid molecule has two ends, an outer head hydrop hilic i.e.
waterattracting, andthe inner tail pointing centrally hydrophobic, i.e. water repelling
(iii) The protein molecules are arranged in two different ways:
(a) Peripheral proteins or extrinsic proteins: these proteins are present on theouter
and inner surfaces of lipid bilayer.
(b) Integral proteins or intrinsic proteins: These proteins penetrate the lipidbilayer
partially or wholly.

Fig The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane.

Functions
(i) The plasma membrane encloses the cell contents.
(ii) It provides cell shape (in animal cells) e.g. the characteristic shape of red bloodcells,
nerve cells, and bone cells.
(iii) It allows transport of certain substances into and out of the cell but not all substances
so much it is termed ‘selectively permeable’.
Cell wall
In bacteria and plant cells the outermost cell cover, present outside the plasmamembrane is the
cell wall about which we shall study now.
Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan. Given below is the structure andfunction of the
plant cell wall.
(a) Structure
 Outermost non-living layer present in all plant cells.

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  Secreted by the cell itself.
 In most plants, it is chiefly made up of cellulose but may also contain otherchemical
substances such as pectin and lignin.
 The substance constituting the cell wall is not simply homogeneous, but it consistsof
finethreads or fibres called microfibrils.
 It may be thin (1 micron) and transparent as in the cells of onion peel. In some cases, it is
very thick as in the cells of wood.
(b) Functions
 The cell wall protects the delicate inner parts of the cell.
 Being rigid, it gives shape to the cell.
 As it is rigid, it does not allow distension of the cell, thus leading to turgidityof the cell
that is useful in many ways
 It freely allows the passage of water and other chemicals into and out of thecells
 There are breaks in the primary wall of the adjacent cells through whichcytoplasm of one
cell remains connected with the other. These cytoplasmicstrands which connect one cell
to the other one is known as plasmodesmata.
 Walls of two adjacent cells are firmly joined by a cementing material calledmiddle
lamella made of calcium pectinate.
B) The cytoplasm and the cell organelles
The cytoplasm contains many cell organelles of which we shall learn about:
1. those that trap and release energy e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts;
2. those that are secretory or involved in synthesis and transport e.g. Golgi,ribosomes and
endoplasmic reticulum
3. the organelles for motilily - cilia and flagella
4. the suicidal bags i.e. lysosomes
5. the nucleus which controls all activities of the cell, and carries the hereditarymaterial
i. Mitochondria and chloroplast - the energy transformers
Mitochondria (found in plant and animal cells) are the energy releasers and
thechloroplasts(found only in green plant cells) are the energy trappers.
 Mitochondria (Singular = mitochondrion)

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Appear as tiny thread like structures under light microscope. Approximately 0.5 -
1.00micrometer.
Number usually a few hundred to a few thousand per cell (smallest number is justone as in an
alga, Micromonas.
Structure: The general plan of the internal structure of a mitochondrion observedby means of
electron microscope is shown below. Note the following parts.

Fig : Structure of Mitochondrion

o Wall made up of double membrane
o The inner membrane is folded inside to form projections called ‘cristae’ whichproject
into the inner compartment called the ‘matrix’.
Function: Oxidises pyruvic acid (breakdown product of glucose) to release energywhich gets
stored in the from of ATP for ready use. This process is also calledcellular respiration. That is
why mitochondria are called the ‘power house’ of acell.
 Plastids

Plastids are found only in a plant cell. These may be colourless or coloured. Basedon this fact,
there are three types of plastids.
(i) Leucoplast - white or colourless
(ii) Chromoplast – blue, red, yellow etc.
(iii) Chloroplast – green
 Chloroplast

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  Found in all green plant cells in the cytoplasm.
 Number 1 to 1008 (how so definite)
 Shape: Usually disc-shaped or laminate as in most plants around you. In someribbon -
shaped as in an alga Spirogyra or cup-shaped as in another alga
 Chlamydomonas.
 Structure: the general plan of the structure of a single chloroplast has been shownbelow.

Fig.Structure of a single chloroplast

Note the following parts:
 Wall made up of double membrane i.e. outer membrane and inner membranenumerous
stack-like (piles) groups or grana (singular = granum) areinterconnected by lamellae.
 Sac-like structures called thylakoids placed one above the other constitutea granum.
 Inside of the chloroplast is filled with a fluid medium called stroma.
 Function: chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis (production of sugar, fromcarbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight).
 Chloroplast versus Mitochondria

Can you now visualize how these two organelles are opposite to each other, onetraps the solar
energy locking it in a complex molecule (by photosynthesis), the otherreleases the energy by
breaking the complex molecule (by respiration).
Similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts: both contain their ownDNA (the genetic
material) as well as their own RNA (for protein synthesis). Thus,they can self-duplicate to
produce more of their own kind without the help ofnucleus.
Thought the chloroplasts and mitochondria contain their own DNA the hereditarymolecule and
their own ribosomes, they are termed as semi-autonomous onlybecause they are incapable of

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independent existence outside the cytoplasm for a longtime. Since most of their proteins are
synthesizedwiththe help of the nuclear DNA.
ii. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body and ribosomes
The Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi body are single membrane boundstructures. The
membrane has the same structure (lipid-protein) as the plasmamembrane but ribosomes do not
have membranes. Ribosomes are involved insynthesis of proteins in the cell, Golgi bodies in
secreting and the ER in transportingand storing the products. These three organelles operate
together.
The Figures below show the diagram of ER and Golgi body as seen under anelectron
microscope. Note the ribosomes present in the ER.

Fig. Golgi body andEndoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Golgi body Ribosomes

Structure
A network of membranes Is a stack of membranous sacsof Spherical about 150 – 250Å in
withthickness between 50 - 60A°. the same thickness as ER.Exhibit diameter, made up oflarge
It is oftwo types– rough great diversity in sizeand shape. molecules of RNA and proteins
endoplasmicreticulum (RER) i.e. (ribonucleoproteins)
whenribosomesare attached to it
and Smoothendo-plasmic
reticulum (SER) whenno
ribosomes are present.

Distributed throughout In animal cells present Present either as free particles

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 thecytoplasmand is in contact aroundthenucleus, 3 to 7 in incytoplasm or attached to ER.
withthe cellmembrane as well as number.In plant cells, many in Alsofound stored in nucleolus
thenuclearmembrane. numberof andpresent insidethe nucleus. 80S types found
scatteredthroughout thecell ineukaryotes and 70S in
calleddictyosomes. prokaryotes(Ssvedberg unit of
Function measuringribosomes).
Provides internal
framework,compartment and
Site for protein synthesis.
reactionsurfaces,transports Synthesis and secretion
enzymes and othermaterials asenzymes, participates
throughout the cell. RER isthe site intransformation of membraneto
for protein synthesis and SERfor give rise to other
steroid synthesis, membranestructure such as
storescarbohydrates. lysosome,acrosome, and
dictyosomes,synthesize wall
element likepectin, mucilage.

iii. The microbodies (tiny but important)

These are small sac-like structures bounded by the single membranes. These are of different
kinds of which we will take up three, viz. lysosomes, peroxisomes andglyoxysomes.
 Lysosomes (lysis = breaking down; soma = body)
Lysosomes are present in almost all animal cells and some non-green plant cellsas shown on the
figure below. They perform intracellular digestion.

Fig : Lysosomes
The main features of lysosomes are as follows:

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 (i) Membranous sacs budded off from Golgi body.
(ii) May be in hundreds in a single cell.
(iii) Contain several enzymes (about 40 in number)
(iv) Materials to be acted upon by enzymes enter the lysosomes.
(v) Lysosomes are called “suicidal bags” as enzymes contained in them can digestthe
cell’s own material when damaged or dead.
Importance of intracellular digestion by the lysosomes
(i) help in nutrition of the cell by digesting food, as they are rich in varioushydrolysing
enzymes which enable them to digest almost all major chemicalconstituents of the
living cell.
(ii) Help in defence by digesting germs, as in white blood cells.
(iii) Help in cleaning up the cell by digesting damaged material of the cell.
(iv) Provide energy during cell starvation by digestion of the own parts of the
cell(autophagic, auto: self; phagos: eat up).
(v) Help sperm cells in entering the egg by breaking through (digesting) the
eggmembrane.
(vi) In plant cells, mature xylem cells lose all cellular contents by lysosome activity.
(vii) When cells are old, diseased or injured, lysosomes attack their cell organellesand
digest them. In other words, lysosomes are autophagic, i.e. self-devouring.
 Peroxisomes
Found both in plant and animal cells. Found in the green leaves of higher plants.They participate
in oxidation of substrates resulting in the formation of hydrogenperoxide.
 They often contain a central core of crystalline material called nucleoidcomposed of urate
oxidase crystals.
 These bodies are mostly spherical or ovoid and about the size of mitochondriaand
lysosomes.
 They are usually closely associated with ER.
 They are involved in photorespiration in plant cells.
 They bring about fat metabolism in cells.
 Glyoxysomes
 The microbodies present in plant cells and morphologically like peroxisomes.

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  Found in the cell of yeast and certain fungi and oil rich seeds in plants.
 Functionally they contain enzymes of fatty acid metabolism involved in theconversion of
lipids to carbohydrates during germination.
iv. Cilia and flagella (the organelles for motility)
(i) Some unicellular organisms like Paramecium and Euglena swim in water withthe
help of cilia and flagella respectively.
(ii) In multicellular organisms some living tissues (epithelial tissues) have cilia. Thebeat
and create a current in the fluid in order to move in a given direction e.g.in the wind
pipe (trachea) to push out the mucus and dust particles.
(iii) Cilia beat like tiny oars or pedals (as in a boat) and flagella bring about whiplashlike
movement.
(iv) Both are made up of contractile protein tubulin in the form of microtubules.
(v) The arrangement of the microtubules is termed as 9 + 2, that is, two
centralmicrotubules and nine duplet sets surrounding them.

Cilia Flagella

  longer (15 μm)

 several 100 per cell structure:  usually 1 or 2 in most cells
protoplasmicprojection and membrane bound
 same as in cilia
 consist of 9 sets of peripheral duplet
microtubulesand 1 set of two singlet tubules
in the centre

v. Centriole
It is present in all the animal cells (but not in Amoeba), located just outside thenucleus. It is

but none in the centre (9 + 0). Each set has three tubulesarranged at definite angles as show in the
Fig. below. It has its own DNA and RNA and thereforeit is self-duplicating.
Function: Centrioles are involved in cell division. They give orientation to the‘mitotic spindle’
which forms during cell division

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 Fig. Centriole (showing 9 + 0 structure)

vi. Basal bodies

These are structures like centrioles. They have the same nine sets of tripletorganization (9 + 0),
as in the centrioles. The cilia and flagella appear to arise fromthe basal bodies.
C) Nucleus (The Hereditary Organelle)
General structure of the nucleus:
(i) It is the largest organelle seen clearly when the cell is not dividing.
(ii) It stains deeply, is mostly spherical, WBC have lobed nuclei.
(iii) It is mostly one in each cell (uninucleate, some cells have many
nuclei;(multinucleate).
(iv) Double layered nuclear membrane having fine nuclear pores encloses
nucleoplasmwhich contains chromatin network and a nucleolus.
Functions
 Maintains the cell in a working order.
 Co-ordinates the activities of other cell organelles.
 Takes care of repair work.
 Participates directly in cell division to produce genetically identical daughtercells. This
division is called mitotic cell division.
 Participates in production of meio-gametes and meiospores through another typeof cell
division called meiotic cell division.
The parts of a nucleus are given here:
i. Nuclear membrane
 Double layered membrane is interrupted by large number of nuclear pores.
 Membrane is made up of lipids and proteins (like plasma membrane) and hasribosomes
attached on the outer membrane which make the outer membranerough.

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  The pores allow the transport of large molecules in and out of nucleus, and
themembranes keep the hereditary material in contact with the rest of the cell.
ii. Chromatin
 Within the nuclear membrane there is jelly like substance (karyolymph ornucleoplasm)
rich in proteins.
 In the karyolymph, fibrillar structures form a network called chromatin fibrils,which gets
condensed to form distinct bodies called chromosomes during celldivision. On staining
the chromosomes, two regions can be identified in thechromatin material
heterochromatin, dark and euchromaticn (light).Heterochromatin has highly coiled DNA
and genetically less active thaneuchromatin which has highly uncoiled DNA and
genetically more active.
 The number of chromosomes is fixed in an organism. During mitotic cell
divisionchromosomes divide in a manner that the daughter cells receive identicalamounts
of hereditary matter.
iii. Nucleolus
 Membraneless, spheroidal bodies present in all eukaryotic cells except in spermsand in
some algae.
 Their number varies from one to few, they stain uniformly and deeply.
 It has DNA, RNA and proteins.
 Store house for RNA and proteins; it disappears during early phase of cell cycleand
reappears after telophase in the newly formed daughter nuclei.
 Regulates the synthetic activity of the nucleus.
 Thus, nucleus and cytoplasm are interdependent, and this process is equal tonucleo-
cytopalsmic interaction.

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 3. Transport of Molecules Through the Cell Membrane
a) Transport of small molecules (such as glucose, amino acids, water, mineral ions etc).
Small molecules can be transported across the plasma membrane by any one of the following
two methods:
(i) Passive Transport
 Diffusion: molecules of substances move from their region of higher concentration to the
regions of lower concentration. This does not require energy. Example: absorption of glucose
in a cell.
 Osmosis: movement of water molecules from the region of their higher concentration to the
region of their lower concentration through a semi permeable membrane. There is no
expenditure of energy in osmosis. This kind of movement is along concentration gradient.
(ii) Active Transport
When the direction of movement of a certain molecule is opposite to that of diffusion i.e. from
region of their lower concentration towards the region of their higher concentration, it would
require an “active effort” by the cell for which energy is needed. This energy is provided by ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). The active transport may also be through a carrier molecule.
b) Transport of large molecules (bulk transport)
During bulk transport the membrane changes its form and shape. It occurs in two ways:
(i) endocytosis (taking the substance in)
(ii) exocytosis (passing the substance out)
Endocytosis is of two types:
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis
1. intake of solid particles 1. intake of fluid droplets
2. membrane folds out going round the 2. membrane folds in and forms
particle, forming a cavity and thus a cup-like structure and sucks
engulfing the particle (Fig. 4.4a) in the droplets (Fig. 4.4b)

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 Fig : Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
Cell membrane regulates movement of substance into and out of the cell. If the cell
membrane fails to function normally, the cell dies.

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 CHAPTER 2
CELL DIVISION
A single cell divides many times and forms a multicelled organism. Unicellular bacteria and
protozoa divide and increase in number. The injured tissues are replaced by new cells through
cell division. Thus, cell division is one of the most important activities in all organisms. In this
lesson you will study about the two kinds of cell division and the processes involved in them.
Majority of cells in a multicellular organism grow and then can divide. However, the cells like
the nerve and muscle cells of animals and guard cells of plants do not divide.
The process of cell division is almost same in all organisms. A cell passes through phases of
growth after which are able to duplicate their chromosomes before they divide. These phases in
the life of a cell constitute the cell cycle.

The cell cycle

You can use the term mother or parent cell for the cell that undergoes division and the daughter
cells for the ones that are the result of this division. Before each daughter cell undergoes
division, it must grow to the same size as its mother cell.
We can distinguish two main phases in the life of a cell.
(i) Interphase - Non-dividing period (Growth phase)
(ii) Dividing phase - Also called M-phase (M for mitosis or meiosis)
(i) Interphase - (Inter = in between)
 The interval between two successive cell divisions is termed interphase (phase at which
the cell is not dividing). It is the longest period in the cell cycle. The interphase is
subdivided into three main periods - G1, S andG2.

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 Fig. The cell cycle consists of various stages (G1, S, G2 and M)
 G1 (Gap-1) Phase i.e. First phase of growth – This is the longest phase. Lot of protein
and RNA are synthesised during this phase.
 S or synthetic Phase - It comes next. Lot of DNA is (synthesised). A chromosome
contains a single double helical strand of DNA molecule. After S-phase each
chromosome becomes longitudinally double except at centromere, and thus, it has two
molecules of DNA and two chromatids.
 Thus, each chromatid contains one molecule of DNA. The two chromatids are joined by a
centromere (which does not divide at this stage) to form a single chromosome.

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  G2 (GAP 2) phase - More protein including the histones are synthesized in this phase.
Cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and golgi bodies get duplicated. Centriole
also divides into two centrioles contained in a singlecentrosome.
(ii) M-phase or dividing phase - Represented by the symbol M (Mitosis or meiosis)
Mitosis occurs so that during this period the chromatids separate and form daughter
chromosomes. The daughter chromosomes go to daughter nuclei and cytoplasm divides forming
two identical daughter cells.

Types of cell division

There are two types of cell division- mitotic cell division and meiotic cell division.
1. Mitotic: Cell division is for growth and replacement of older cells by new cells where in
the two daughter cells are identical and similar to mother cell in all respects. Mitotic cell
division occurs in haploid as well as diploid cells.
2. Meiotic cell division occurs in the gonads for sexual reproduction to produce gametes.
The resultant cells, egg (in female) and sperms (in male), possess half the chromosome
number of that present in the parent cell. Meiotic cell division takes place only in diploid
cells responsible for production of haploid spores or gametes.

Mitosis (mitos = thread)

Mitosis is divided into 4 phases or stages termed as
(i) Prophase (ii) Metaphase
(iii) Anaphase (iv) Telophase
These phases refer to the changes taking place in the nucleus.

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 Fig : Stages of Mitosis
 Prophase: It shows three subphases:
(i) Early prophase
 Centriole divides and each of the two centrioles start movingtowards opposite poles of
thenucleus of the dividing cell.
 Chromosomes appear as longthreads, and start coiling.
 Nucleus enlarges and becomesless distinct

(ii) Middle prophase

 Chromosome condensation is complete and they become short and thick
 Each chromosome is made up of two chromatids held together at theircentromeres.
 Each chromatid contains newly replicated daughter DNA molecule.

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(iii) Late Prophase
 Centrioles reach the opposite poles of the dividing cell.
 Some spindle fibres extend from pole to the equator of the dividing cell.
 Nuclear membrane disappears
 Nucleolus is not visible.
 Metaphase
 Chromosomes are brought towards the equator of the cell, with the help of spindle fibres.
 Each chromosome becomes attached to the two spindle fibres by centromere. Whereas
each centromere is joined to the opposite poles.
 The sister chromatids are not yet separated because the centromere has not divided

 Anaphase
 Centromeres of all the chromosomes divide and then each chromatid becomesa
chromosome.
 Spindle fibres contract and pull the centromeres to the opposite poles.
 As the chromosomes are pulled by spindle fibres to opposite poles by theircentromeres,
they acquire various shapes such as V, J or I depend upon theposition of centromere.
 Half the number of chromosomes move towards one pole and the other halfto the
opposite pole.
 Cytokinesis begins as the cleavage furrow starts from the periphery towardsthe centre in
animal cells, and in plants, cell plate appears in the centre thatgrows centrifugally
towards periphery.

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 Telophase
 Chromosomes uncoil to form a chromatin network as in the parent nucleus
 New nuclear membrane is formed around each daughter nucleus
 Nucleolus reappears again in each newly formed daughter nucleus.

 Cytokinesis
It is the process of the division of cytoplasm of a dividing cell into two. It is initiatedin the
beginning of telophase and is completed by the end of telophase. Themechanism of cytokinesis
is different in plant and animal cells. In an animal cell,invagination of plasma
membraneproceeds from the periphery of the cell towards the interior. In plant cell phragmoplast
(cell plate) begins to form in the centre of cell and then expands towards the periphery

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Significance of Mitosis
It is an equational division, and the two newly formed daughter cells are identicalin all respects.
They receive the same number and kind of chromosomes as werein the mother cells.
 It is the only mode of reproduction in unicellular organisms.
 It is the process by which growth takes place in multicellular animals and plantsby
constantly adding more and more cells.
 It also plays a role in repair during growth, for example in wound healing,regeneration of
damaged parts (as in the tail of lizard), and replacement of cellslost during normal wear
and tear (as the surface cells of the skin or the red blood

Mitotic Cell Division (Limited or unlimited)

Growth by mitosis occurs in a limited or controlled manner to the extent it is requiredin the body.
But at times due to some special cases the number of cells may increaseabnormally which may
cause Cancer.
In plant tissue culture, a cell from a plant can be grown in a nutrient medium, where it divides
repeatedly by mitosis to give an undifferentiated cell mass called callus capable of
differentiating into a plant in the presence of nutrients and specific growth hormones. In animals,
stem cell culture is also based on the ability of a cell to divide and give rise to cells of specific
type.
Meiotic Cell Division (GK meioun = make smaller, sis = action)
This division is also known as ‘reduction division’. But why this name? Thisis because, in
thiskind of cell division the normal chromosome number of themother cell is reduced to half
in daughter cells. The normal chromosomenumber in human being is 46 (23 pairs), but as a
result of meiosis in ovary andtestes this number is halved to 23 in daughter cells (called sperms
or the egg).
Where does it occur? It occurs in reproductive cells, e.g. in the testes of maleand in the ovaries
of female animals; and in plants, in the pollen mother cellof the anthers (male organs) and in the
megaspore mother cells of the ovary(female organ) of the flowers.
Why does it occur? In meiosis the chromosome number is reduced to half so that when
doubledat fertilisation (zygote formation) during the reproductionit once again becomes ristored
to the deploid state.

pg. 23
  The number of chromosomes remains constant in a species generationafter generation.
 Cells divide mitotically in the organisms that reproduce vegetatively/asexually. Thus,
there is no change in the number of chromosomes, butsexually reproducing organisms
form gametes such as sperms in males andova in females. The male and female gametes
fuse to form the zygotewhich develops into a new individual.
 If these gametes were, produced by mitosis, the offspring developing fromzygote then
would have double the number of chromosomes in the nextgeneration.
 Every living organism has a definite number of chromosomes in its bodycells. e.g. onion
cell-16; potato-48; horse-64; man-46. Therefore, to keepthe chromosome number
constant the reproductive cells of the parents(ovaries and testis in animals, and pollen
mother cells in anthers andmegaspore mother cells in the ovules inside the ovary in
plants) dividethrough meiosis.

Fig:Cell wall formation after mitosis in a plant cell

How does meiosis occur?
Meiosis is characterized by two successive divisions of the nucleus (meiosis I andII)
andcytoplasm, whereas the chromosomes divide only once. The phases ofmeiotic division are
givenin the flow-chart drawn here.
 The interphase which precedes the onset of meiosis is similar to the interphasewhich
precedes mitosis. At S-phase, the DNA molecule of each chromosomeduplicates to give
rise to two DNA molecules and hence two chromatids arefound in one chromosome
attached to a single centromere.

pg. 24
Meiosis-I and meiosis-II are continuous and have been divided into sub-stagesonly for
convenience to study the process of nuclear division.
Meiosis-I
Like mitosis, meiosis-I also consists of four stages; prophase-I, metaphase-I,anaphase-I and
telophase-I.
 Prophase-I
The prophase-I of meiosis-I is much longer as compared to the prophase of mitosis.It is further
sub-divided into the following five sub-stages:
(i) Leptotene (GK ‘leptos’ - thin; ‘tene - thread)
 The chromosomes become distinct andappear as long and thin threads bearing finebeads
due to condensation (coiling of DNA)at specific points called chromomeres.
 Each chromosome consists of twochromatids held together by a centromerebut these are
not easily visible.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are distinct.

(ii) Zygotene (GK. ‘Zygos’-pairing)

 Chromosomes continue coiling and becomeshorter and thicker

pg. 25
  Similar or homologous chromosomes startpairing from one end. This pairing is knownas
synapsis.Each pair of homologous chromosomes iscalled a bivalent.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are distinct.

(iii) Pachytene (GK. ‘pachus’ - thick:

 The chromosomes become shorter andthicker due to further coiling.
 Each paired unit called a ‘bivalent’ showsfour chromatids hence bivalents are alsoknown
as tetravalents.
 Crossing-over occurs at the end ofpachytene i.e. break and exchange ofparts (genes)
occurs between non-sister chromatids (chromatids of ahomologous pair)
The point of interchange and rejoiningappears X-shaped and is known aschiasma
(pluralchiasmata) or the pointof crossing over.

(iv) Diplotene (‘Diplous’-double)

 Chromosomes continue coiling furtherand become shorter.
 The centromeres of homologous chromosomes start repelling each other
 The two non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomesremain, attached at
one or two points, the chiasmata.
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane become indistinct.

pg. 26
  It is at the chiasmata that exchange of segments of nonsister chromatids(genes) between
homologous chromosomes has taken place. The processof gene exchange is known as
genetic recombination.

(v) Diakinesis(GK dia = through, in different directions, kinesis = motion)

 The bivalents become the shortest and thickest due to maximum coiling.
 The centromeres and non-homologous parts of homologous chromosomesof a bivalent
move apart due to repulsion from each other.
 Consequently, the bivalents acquire various configurations such as O, Xor 8, depending
upon the number ofchiasmata per bivalent.Nuclear membrane and
nucleolusdisappear.Spindle formation is completed.

 Metaphase-I
 The bivalents arrange themselves atthe equatororial plate.
 The homologous chromosomesarrange in such a way that all maternalor all paternal
chromosomes do notget attached to same pole. In otherwords, some maternal and
somepaternal chromosomes are joined toeach pole.
 The spindle fibres are attached at thecentromere of the chromosomes.
 One centromere of a bivalent is joined to one pole and second centromereis joined to the
opposite pole by theseparate spindle fibres.

pg. 27
 Anaphase-I
 The spindle fibres shorten.
 The centromeres of homologouschromosomes are pulled along by the spindlefibres
towards the opposite poles (nodivision of centromere)
 Thus, half of the number chromosomes(each with two chromatids) of the parentcell go to
one pole and the remaining half to the opposite pole.
 Each set of chromosomes that moves to one pole consists of a mixtureof paternal and
maternal chromosome parts (new gene combination). Thisis the basic reason for mixing
of maternal and paternal genes in theproducts of meiosis.

 Telophase-I
 The separated chromosomes uncoil in the newly formed daughter nuclei.
 The daughter nuclei have half the numberof centromeres as compared to that in theparent
nucleus. But, since each centromerehas two chromatids, amount of DNA at thetwo poles
at telophase-I is same i.e. 2n(diploid as in the parent nucleus whereinthe chromosomes
had duplicated at Sphase,thus amount of DNA in the dividingcell upto anaphase I was
4n)
 The daughter cells now have half theamount of DNA as compared to that atAnaphase-I,
that is 2n.

pg. 28
  The nucleous reappears and nuclear membrane forms
 The daughter nuclei enter intothe second meiotic division.,

Second Meiotic Division

It has the samefour stages;(i) Prophase II (ii) Metaphase II(iii) Anaphase II (iv) Telophase II
(i) Prophase II (Fig. 4.15i)
 The chromosomes shorten and chromatidsbecome distinct. The two
chromatids ofeach chromosome are attached to the singlecentromere.
 Formation of spindle starts.
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane begin todisappear.

(ii) Metaphase II
 The chromosomes arrange themselves alongthe equator.
 Formation of spindle apparatus is completed.
 The centromere of each chromosome is attached by two spindle fibres to the
opposite poles.

(iii) Anaphase II

pg. 29
  The centromere in each chromosome divides sothat each chromatid has its
own centromere andeach chromatid is now a complete chromosome.
 The chromatids get their respective centromere and become
daughterchromosomes and begin to move towards the opposite poles due
tocontraction of spindle fibres.

(iv) Telophase II
 On reaching the poles, the chromosomes organize themselves into
haploiddaughter nuclei.
 The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane reappear.
 Each of the four daughter nuclei has half the number of chromosomes (n)as
well as half the amount of DNA as compared to the parent nucleus(2n).

Cytokinesis
 This may occur in two successive stages, once after meiosis I and thenafter meiosis II, or
in some instances it occurs only after meiosis II.
 Thus after meiotic cell division four haploid cells are formed.

pg. 30
Significance of Meiosis
(i) It helps to maintain constant number of chromosomes in different generationsof a
species undergoing sexual reproduction.
(ii) Meiosis occurs during gamete formation (gametogenesis) and reduces thenumber of
chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) in the gametes. Thesehaploid gametes
fuse to form diploid zygote during fertilization. The diploidzygote develops into a
normal diploid individual.
(iii) Meiosis establishes new combination of characters due to; (a) mixing of paternal and
maternal chromosomes and (b) crossing over duringprophase I. As a result the
progeny inherits the traits of both the mother andthe father in new gene combinations.

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
1. Cell divides only once. 1. There are two cell divisions. First
meioticdivision and the second meiotic
2. Takes place in somatic cells as well as division.
in reproductive cells which may be 2. Takes place only in diploid germ cells.
haploid or diploid or polyploid.
3. Duration of prophase is short(few
hours). 3. Prophase-I, is compartively longer(takes
4. Prophase simple. many days).
4. Prophase I, is complicated havingfive
substages namely leptotene,zygotene,
5. Synapsis does not occur. pachytene, diplotene anddiakinesis.
5. Synapsis of homologous chromosomes takes
place during prophase-I.
6. No exchange of segments during 6. Exchange of segments during crossing over
prophase between two non-sisters of between non-sister chromatidshomologous
two chromatids of chromosomes. chromosomes takes place.
7. Each chromosome consists of two 7. Each bivalent has four chromatids andtwo
chromatids united by a centromere. centromeres.

pg. 31
8. Chromosomes are duplicated at the 8. In prophase I, chromosomes appear
beginning of prophase. singlealthough DNA replication has taken
place in interphase I.
9. In metaphase all the centromeres line 9. In metaphase I, the centromeres are lined upin
up in the same plane. two planes which are parallel to one another.
10. The metaphasic plate is made up of 10. The metaphasic plate is made up of
duplicated chromosome. pairedchromosomes.
11. Centromere division takes place 11. No centromere divisions during Anaphase
during anaphase. I,centromeres divide only during Anaphase II.
12. Spindle fibres disappear completely in 12. Spindle fibres do not disappear
telophase. completelyduring telophase I.
13. Reappearance of nucleoli at telophase. 13. Nucleoli do not appear in telophase I.
14. The chromosome number does not 14. There is reduction in the chromosomenumber
change at the end of mitosis from diploid to haploid
15. The genetic constitution of 15. The genetic constitution of chromosomes
chromosomes daughter cells is indaughter cells is different as compared to
absolutelyidentical to that of parent the parentcells. The daughter cell
cells. chromosomes contain a mixture of maternal
and paternal genes.
16. Mitosis is of shorter duration. 16. Meiosis is of longer duration.
17. It is the basis of growth and repair and 17. It is basis of maintaining same
reproduction in vegetatively chromosomenumber in different generations
orasexually reproducing organisms of a speciesreproducting sexually as well as
for providing genetic variation in the progeny.

What is a karyotype
Chromosomes can be seen distinctly only at metaphase. They are then photographed,cut
andarranged in pairs according to size. Such an arrangement of homologouschromosomes of
anindividual in descending order according to size, is termed asa karyotype

pg. 32
The nucleus divides first and then the whole cell divides. Division of one nucleus to produce two
daughter nuclei a is called (karyokinesis). Division of cytoplasm to give two daughter cells is
called cytokinesis.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

 A living cell is a self-sufficient unit of the body of a living plant or animal.
 Important cell organelles are mitochondria, Golgi complex, ER, ribosomes,peroxisomes,
chloroplast, glyoxisomes, nucleus.
 With the exception of centrioles, ribosomes and nucleolus, all other organellesare
membrane-bound.
 Although a cell fails to live, grow and reproduce in the absence of a nucleus,nucleus all
by itself without cytoplasm is also ineffective.
 Some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast have the capacity to
duplicatethemselves to some extent without the help of the nucleus i.e. they are
termedsemi-autonomous.
 The living cells divide by mitotic cell division to produce new cells.Growth in body
occurs due to increase in the number of cells.
 The continuity of the chromosomal set is maintained by cell division.
 The life cycle of a cell includes interphase (G1, S & G2) and M-phase (mitosisor meiosis)
 Mitotic cell division occurs in somatic cells or reproductive cells that results inthe
formation of identical cells, both qualitatively and quantitively.
 Meiosis occurs in germ cells only i.e. testis and ovary. This is a reduction division where
the chromosome number becomes half.
 The significance of mitosis is growth, and reproduction where the product ofreproduction
is identical.
 The Significance of meiosis is in sexual reproduction where ova and sperm bothhave half
the number of chromosomes i.e. 23 each in human gametes (but normalnumber of
chromosome of human is 46 or 23 pair) and on fertilization thechromosome number
becomes normal.
 Meiosis also helps in mixing the paternal and maternal characters.

pg. 33