Chapter INTRODUCTION

TO

1 STATISTICS

Today, statistics and its application are an integral part of our life. In such diverse
settings as politics, medicine, education, business, and the legal arena, human activities
are both measured and guided by statistics.

We begin the module with some basic analysis. Since statistics involves the
collection and interpretation of data, we must first know how to understand, display, and
summarize large amounts of quantitative information, before undertaking a more
sophisticated analysis. Statistical analysis of quantitative data is important throughout
the pure and social sciences.

General Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. appreciate the use and the beauty of statistics in the field of research,
management and in daily lives;
2. define Statistics, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and other basic
terminologies about statistics;
3. identify the need of data in conducting research; and
4. determine the importance of measurement level in identifying appropriate
methods for data collection and analysis.
LESSON I. WHAT IS STATISTICS
As we embark on our journey into the study of statistics, we must begin with the
definition of statistics and expand on the details involved.
Statistics has become the universal language of the sciences. As potential users
of statistics, we need to master both “sciences” and the “art” of using statistical
methodology correctly. Careful use of statistical methods will enable us to obtain
accurate information from data. These methods include (1) carefully defining the
situation, (2) gathering data, (3) accurately summarizing the data, and (4) deriving and
communicating meaningful conclusions.

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. define statistics;
2. distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics;
3. appreciate the need of data in conducting research; and
4. state the reasons in obtaining data.

Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which deals with the collection,

organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data. Statisticians develop and
apply appropriate methods in collecting and analyzing data. They guide the design of a
research study then analyze the results. The interpretation of the results is the basis of
the statisticians in making inferences about the population.

a. Data gathering or Collection. May be done through interview, questionnaires,

tests, observation, registration, and experiments.
b. Presentation of Data. Refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs,
charts, or paragraphs. It may be tabular, graphical, or textual.
c. Analysis of Data. Pertains to the process of extracting from the given data
relevant and noteworthy information and this uses statistical tools or techniques.
d. Interpretation of Data. Refers to the drawing of conclusions or inferences from
the analyzed data.
TYPES OF STATISTICS

As we have seen, statistics can refer to a set of individual numbers or numerical

facts, or to general or specific statistical techniques. A further breakdown of the subject
is possible, depending on whether the emphasis is on (1) simply describing the
characteristics of a set of data or (2) proceeding from data characteristics to making
generalizations, estimates, forecasts, or judgments based on the data. The former is
referred to as descriptive statistics, while the latter is called inferential statistics.

STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

FIGURE 1.1 Types of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics. It relates to the gathering, classification and presentation of

data and the collection of summarizing values to describe group characteristics of data.
The most used summarizing values to describe group characteristics of data are
percentage, measures of central tendency and location, measures of variability,
skewness, and kurtosis. For example, upon looking around your class, you may find
that 35% of your fellow students are wearing Casio watches. If so, the figure “35%” is a
descriptive statistic. Chapter 3 and 4 will present several popular visual and statistical
approaches to expressing the data we or others have collected. For now, however, just
remember that descriptive statistics are used only to summarize or describe data.
 Data Collection Exploration of Analysis
and Preparation Data

Collect Data
Explore
Descriptive Relationship
Prepare Statistics between
Codebook Variables
Set up Structure
of Data

Enter Data Compare

Graphs Groups
Screen Data for
Errors

FIGURE 1.2 Data Analysis and Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics. Pertains to the methods dealing with making inference,

estimates or prediction about large set of data using the information gathered.
Commonly used inferential statistical tools or techniques are testing hypothesis using z-
test, t-text, simple linear correlation, analysis of variance (ANOVA), chi-squares,
regression, and time series analysis. For example, observing a sample nurses and
other healthcare workers who were likely infected with the COVID-19, researchers
found that only half routinely wore the PPEs when dealing with patients. Chapter 5 and
6 will present several popular visual and statistical approaches to predict the data
collected. For now, however, just remember that inferential statistics draws conclusions
about a population based on data observed in a sample.
 Data Collection Exploration of Analysis
and Preparation Data

Collect Data
Explore
Descriptive Relationship
Prepare Statistics between
Codebook Variables
Set up Structure
of Data

Enter Data Compare

Graphs Groups
Screen Data for
Errors

FIGURE 1.3 Data Analysis and Inferential Statistics

WHY DATA ARE NEEDED

Whichever industry you work in, or whatever your interests, you will almost
certainly have come across a story about how “data” is changing the face of our world. It
might be part of a study helping to cure a disease, boost a company’s revenue, make a
building more efficient or be responsible for those targeted ads you keep seeing. Data is
one of the most important and vital aspect of any research studies. Researchers
conducted in different fields of study can be different in methodology, but every
research is based on data which is analyzed and interpreted to get information. Data is
the basic unit in statistical studies. Statistical information like census, population
variables, health statistics, and road accidents records all developed from data.

Data contain information needed to make a more informed decision in a situation,

there are many instances in which data are needed:

 A market researcher needs to assess product characteristics to distinguish one

product from another.
  An operations manager wants to monitor an assembly process on a regular basis
to find out whether it follows generally accepted accounting principles.
 A potential investor wants to determine what firms within what industries are
likely to have accelerated growth in a period of economic recovery.
 A student wants to get data on classmates’ favorite rock groups to satisfy a
curiosity.

TABLE 1.1 Six Main Reasons for Data Collection

Reason for Obtaining Data

1. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to a survey.
2. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to the study.
3. Data are needed to measure performance of an ongoing service or
production process.
4. Data are needed to evaluate conformance to standards.
5. Data are needed to assist in formulating alternative courses of action
in a decision-making process.
6. Data are needed to satisfy our curiosity.

Key Data Collection Sources

1. Data may already be published by governmental, industrial, or individual

sources. The Philippine Statistics Authority is responsible for collecting and
compiling data on economic, social, demographic, political affairs, and general
affairs of the people of the Philippines.
2. An experimental may be designed to obtain the necessary data. Strict
control is exercised over the treatments. For example, in a study testing the
effectiveness of laundry detergent, the researcher determines which brands in
the study are most effective in cleaning soiled clothes by actually washing dirty
laundry instead of asking customers which brand they believe to be most
effective.
 3. A survey may be conducted. In this data collection sources, no control is
exercised over the behavior of the people being surveyed. They are merely
asked questions about their beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and other
characteristics. Responses are then edited, coded, and tabulated for analysis.
4. An observational study may be conducted. A researcher observes the
behavior directly, usually in its natural setting. Most knowledge of animal
behavior is developed in this way, as in our scientific knowledge other fields,
such as astronomy and geology, in which experimentation and surveys are
impractical if not impossible.

Two Types of Data Collection Sources

1. Primary Sources. It is measured and gathered by the researcher that published

it. They are the data collectors.
2. Secondary Sources. It is republished by another researcher or agency. They
are the data compilers.