PRESENT SIMPLE: Affirm: –S / Neg: DON’T – DOESN’T / Int: DO…? – DOES…?

(Camino)

 Hábitos, rutinas, estados.

 Hechos que siempre son verdaderos
The sun rises in the East
 Situaciones verdaderas al momento de hablar.
Maluma sings pop music
 Horarios (trenes, aviones, etc).
Tomorrow we are going to the beach. The train leaves at 10 am
 Oraciones subordinadas futuras
I’ll call you when I get home
 Reseñas (ficha del libro)
The wolf eats Little Red Riding Hood
 Adverbs: ALWAYS, USUALLY, SOMETIMES, ETC

PRESENT CONTINUOUS: IS – ARE – AM + -ING (Estoy caminando)

 Acción que está sucediendo en el momento de hablar.

 Con “always” para expresar enojo, sorpresa o molestia.
He is always shouting.
 Para situaciones que están cambiando
The Spring is starting and the day are getting longer
 Situaciones temporales
We are studying Present Simple this term
 Acuerdos o arreglos futuros cercanos*
Next Friday, I am meeting my friends in town

STATE VERBS: describen un estado NO una acción. Se usan con el PRESENT SIMPLE!

 Verbs of thinking: agree, believe, disagree, doubt, expect, forget*, know, remember*, suppose, think*,
understand
 Verbs describing attitude: dislike, hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish
 Verbs of perception: hear, see, smell, taste
 Verbs describing appearance: appear, look (=seem), seem, sound: He looks nice = Él se ve bien!
 Verbs of being and possessions: be, belong, contain, have*, own, possess.
 Other verbs: cost, fit, mean, owe, weigh

*Cuidado!! Algunos tienen un significado en Present Simple y en Present Continuous tienen otro significado!!

I think you are right = Creo que estás en lo cierto

I am thinking about buying a house = Estoy pensando en comprar una casa

PRESENT PERFECT SIMLE: HAVE / HAS + PARTICIPLE (He caminado)

 TIEMPO INDEFINIDO!! No sé exactamente cuando sucedió!!

 Acción terminada recientemente
 Acción más importante que el “cuando”
 Acción, hecho que ha sucedido en nuestra vida hasta ahora.
I have read a lot of books in my life.

 Hecho que comenzó en el pasado y continua hasta el presente: FOR / SINCE

 I have studied English for 9 years / I have studied English since I was a child
 Hecho que sucedió en el pasado y el resultado está en el presente
I can’t play football. I have broken my leg.
 Adverbs: JUST, ALREADY, YET, FOR, SINCE, EVER, NEVER

Cuidado!! BE / GO!! Los dos se arman igual!!

BE: He has been to London (Fue a Londrés y ya volvió)

BE: He has gone to London (Fue a Londrés y aún no volvió)

GO: He has been to London (Fue a Londrés y ya volvió)

GO: He has gone to London (Fue a Londrés y aún no volvió)

PRESENT PERFECT SIMLE: HAVE / HAS + BEEN + -ING (He estado caminando)

 Importancia en la DURACIÓN de la acción

 Acción que comenzó en el pasado y continúa hasta ahora.
 Acción que comenzó en el pasado y terminó recientemente con el resultado en el presente
 HOW LONG …?
 Adverbs: SINCE, FOR, ALL (the day, morning, etc)
I am exhausted. I have been working in the garden all morning

PAST SIMPLE: Affirm: Regular and Irregular Verbs / Neg: DIDN’T / Int: DID…? (Caminé)

 TIEMPO DEFINIDO!! Se precisamente cuando sucedió!!

 Acción terminada, completa.
 Hábito en el pasado

USED TO / WOULD + INFINITIVE (Solía / Acostumbraba caminar)

 USED TO + INF. : hábitos o estado en el pasado

I used to go running (hábito)
I used to have long hair (estado)
 WOULD + INF. : hábitos (solamente!!)
I would stay up late

PAST CONTINUOUS: WAS - WERE + -ING (Estaba caminando)

 Acción que estaba en progreso / sucediendo en un momento en particular en el pasado

Yesterday at 10 pm, I was sleeping (me fuí a dormir a las 9.30, a las 10 ya estaba durmiendo)
 Establecer la escena (lo que estaba pasando) de una historia
While Little Red Riding Hood was walking in the forest, the sun was shining and the birds were singing
 Acción en progreso que es interrumpida por otra acción (Past Simple)
WHEN: I was eating WHEN the mobile rang
WHEN the mobile rang, I was eating
WHILE: WHILE I was eating, the mobile rang
The mobile rang WHILE I was eating

PAST PERFECT: HAD + PARTICIPLE (Había caminado)

  Acción que sucedió antes de otra acción pasada (pasado anterior al pasado)
When we arrived at the station, the train had left. (1° el tren partió; 2° nosotros llegamos)
 Adverbs: WHEN, AFTER, BY, BY THE TIME, BEFORE, AS SOON AS, UNTIL, ALREADY, JUST, EVER, NEVER, THE
DAY/WEEK/ MONTH BEFORE.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS: HAD + BEEN + -ING (Había estado caminando)

 Acción que continuó por un tiempo en el pasado hasta que es interrumpida por otra acción
We had been walking for hours when the storm started
 Adverbs: SINCE, FOR, ALL (the day, morning, etc)

FUTURE SIMPLE: WILL + INFINITIVE (Caminaré)

 Predicción sobre el futuro (sin evidencia)

In thirty years’ time life won’t be the same
 Decisión tomada al momento de hablar.
It is really hot here, I will open the window
 Ofrecimientos, promesas, amenazas
Don’t worry! I will help you / Ok! I promise I will help you / Behave or I will call your mum
 Phrases: I THINK… , I’M SURE… , PROBABLY… , DEFINITELY…

BE GOING TO: IS – ARE – AM + GOING TO + INFINITIVE (Voy a caminar)

 Predicción sobre el futuro (con evidencia)

Look at those clouds. It is going to rain.
 Hechos que esperamos que sucedan en el futuro (porque hay cierta evidencia)
Be careful! You are going to fall down.
 Intenciones, planes, decisiones tomadas (planeadas)
When I finish school, I am going to study medicine

PRESENT CONTINUOUS: IS – ARE – AM + -ING (Voy a caminar*)

 Acuerdos o arreglos futuros cercanos*

Next Friday, I am meeting my friends in town

FUTURE CONTINUOUS: WILL + BE + -ING (Estaré caminando)

 Acción en progreso / sucediendo en un momento en particular en el futuro

Tomorrow at 6.00 pm I will be playing an important match

FUTURE PERFECT: WILL + HAVE + PARTICIPLE (Habré caminado)

 Acción que estará terminada en un momento en particular en el futuro.

By 9.00 pm tomorrow, the match will have finished
 Phrases: BY… , BY THE TIME … + Present Simple (oraciones subordinadas futuras)

SHALL:
  Sugerencias, ofrecimientos
 Solo con I o WE en interrogative
Shall I/we help you?

FUTURE IN PAST: WAS - WERE + GOING TO + INFINITIVE (Estaba por caminar)

 Acción planeada en el pasado que no sucedió (tenía la intención de hacerlo pero no sucedió)
I was going to phone you but I didn’t have time

FUTURE TIME CLAUSES (Oraciones subordinadas futuras)

 Están introducidas por: AFTER, BEFORE, WHEN, WHILE, AS SOON AS, UNTIL, ONCE, NEXT TIME
 Se usa el Present Simple en las oraciones subordinadas
 Se usa el Present Continuous para acciones que estarán en progreso en el futuro.
I will have a pizza as soon as I get home
We will go to the cinema once we finish the work

TOO (demasiado) / ENOUGH (suficiente

  TOO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB
The water is too cold
 TOO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERBS + TO + INFINITIVE
The water is too cold to swim
 TOO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERBS + FOR + SOMEBODY + TO + INFINITIVE
The water is too cold for me to swim

 (NOT) + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + ENOUGH

The water is (not) hot enough
 (NOT) + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB + ENOUGH + TO + INFINITIVE
The water is (not) hot enough to swim
 ENOUGH + NOUN
The water is (not) enough time to swim

SO (tan) / SUCH

 SO + ADJECTIVE / ADVERB
She is so nice / She works so well
 SO + MUCH + UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
There is so much noise
 SO + MANY + COUNTABLE NOUN
There are so many
 SO + … + THAT + CLAUSE
She is so nice that I love her.
There is so much noise that I can’t sleep
There are so many people that we can’t walk

 SUCH + A / AN + ADJECTIVE + NOUN (singular countable)

She is such a nice girl
 SUCH + ADJECTIVE + NOUN (plural countable)
They are such nice girls
 SUCH + ADJECTIVE + NOUN (uncountable)
We had such bad weather
 SUCH + … + THAT + CLAUSE
She is such a nice girl that I love her.
They are such nice girls that I love them
We had such bad weather that we couldn’t go to the beach.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

 COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
 Adjetivos cortos  Adjetivos cortos
- er than: smaller than the …- est: the smallest

 Adjetivos cortos terminados en –E  Adjetivos cortos terminados en –E

- r than: wider than the …- st: the widest

 Adjetivos cortos terminados en –Y  Adjetivos cortos terminados en –Y

- ier than: easier than the …- iest: the easiest

 Adjetivos cortos terminados en cons + vocal +  Adjetivos cortos terminados en cons + vocal +
cons cons
- doble cons + vocal + cons than: bigger than the …- doble cons + vocal + cons: the biggest

 Adjetivos largos  Adjetivos largos

- more … than: more important than the most …: the most important

 Adjetivos irregulares  Adjetivos irregulares

good: better than good: the best
bad: worse than bad: the worst
far: further than far: the furthest
little: less than little: the least
much/many: more than much/many: the most

 Adverbios  Adverbios
well: better than well: the best
badly: worse than badly: the worst
late: later than late: the last
much/a lot: more than much/a lot: the most
little: less than little: the least

 (NOT) AS + ADJETIVO/ADVERBS + AS: (no) tan … como

You are (not) as tall as your father
You drive / don’t drive as carefully as your mother

 (NOT) AS MUCH/MANY + NOUN + AS: cantidades

I don’t earn as much money as Messi does

 A BIT, A LITTLE, EVEN, RATHER, SLIGHTLY, FAR, A LOT + COMPARATIVE

The exam was a lot harder than I thought
The exam was a bit harder than I thought
 THE + COMPARATIVE + THE COMPARATIVE (para demostrar tendencia; una situación depende de la otra)
The harder you work, the better notes you get
The more you eat, the fatter you get

 THE SAME (AS)… , SIMILAR TO… , DIFFERENT FROM…

COUNTABLE VS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS / DETERMINERS

  COUNTABLE NOUNS: can be SINGULAR and PLURAL
 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: are always SINGULAR

 A / AN (un / uno / una): are used with SINGULAR COUNTABLE nouns

 SOME (algo / algunos / algunas): is used with - PLURAL COUNTABLE nouns

- (SINGULAR) UNCOUNTABLE nouns

Cuidado!! UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: accommodation, advice, behavior, furniture, food, information, knowledge,
luggage, money, news, progress, success, traffic, travel, trouble, water, work

 SOME: affirmative & questions (solo para pedidos u ofrecimientos)

 ANY: negative & questions
 NO: negative (en vez del ANY pero el verbo va en afirmativo)

 MUCH: negative & questions / UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 MANY: negative & questions /COUNTABLE NOUNS

 A LITTLE: (= some con significado positive) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 A FEW: (= some con significado positive) COUNTABLE NOUNS

 LITTLE: (= casi nada con significado negativo) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 FEW: (= casi nada con significado negativo) COUNTABLE NOUNS

 SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUNS: each (cada), every (cada)

 (SINGULAR) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS: a little (un poquito), little (poco), a bit of (un poquito de), a great/good deal
of (una buena cantidad de), a large amount of (una gran cantidad de), each of (cada uno de),

 PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS: a few (unos pocos), several (varios), many (algunos), most (la mayoría), few (unos
pocos), a number of (un buen número de), all (todos)

 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS & PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS: some (algunos), a lot of (mucho/s), lots of (mucho/s),
plenty of (mucho), no

 PLENTY OF / ENOUGH: suficiente / tanto como se necesita

 TOO MUCH: (demasiado, más de lo que se necesita) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 TOO MANY: (demasiado, más de lo que se necesita) COUNTABLE NOUNS

CONDITIONALS
  ZERO CONDITIONAL: hechos que son siempre verdaderos
IF + PRES. SIMPLE + PRES. SIMPLE
If you eat a lot, you get fat.

 FIRST CONDITIONAL: posibles situaciones en el futuro.

IF + PRES. SIMPLE + WILL + INFINITIVE (can / could / may / might / imperative)
If I pass my exam, I will feel extremely happy

(a menos que) UNLESS = IF… NOT

Unless I get a good mark, I won’t go out tonight.
If I don’t get a good mark, I won’t go out tonight

PROVIDED / PROVIDING / AS LONG AS / ON CONDITION THAT

I’ll lend you my bike, provided you give it back tomorrow.

IN CASE
I’ll take an umbrella in case it rains

 SECOND CONTIDIONAL: sit. imaginarias, imposibles o poco probables de que ocurran; consejo o sugerencia
IF + PAST SIMPLE + WOULD / COULD / MIGHT
If I were President, I would build more house.
If I were you, I would stop eating sweets.

UNLESS = IF… NOT

Unless I were really hungry, I wouldn’t eat that food
If I weren’t really hungry, I wouldn’t eat that food

SUPPOSE / SUPPOSING… What if…?

Suppose I won the lottery, I would buy a new house

 THIRD CONDITIONAL: situaciones posibles en el pasado que no sucedieron

IF + PAST PERFECT + WOULD HAVE / COULD HAVE / MIGHT HAVE + PARTICIPLE
If I had known, I would have helped you

WISHES

 I WISH / IF ONLY + Past Simple or Continuous (situación presente)

I wish I had a house (but I don’t have a house)
If only I had a house

 I WISH / IF ONLY + Past Perfect (situación pasada)

I wish I had studied for the exam (but I didn’t study for it)
If only I had studied for the exam

 I WISH / IF ONLY + Would (situación presente que me gustaría que cambie, pero probablemente no suceda)
I wish he would stop crying (estoy cansada de escucharlo llorar)
If only he would stop crying

 REGRET + VERB + - ING (arrepentimiento sobre algo que sucedió en el pasado)

I regret pulling her hair (no debí haberlo hecho)

 SHOULD (NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (arrepentimiento)

I shouldn’t have pulled her hair (no debería haberle tirado el pelo)

PASSIVE VOICE
 Forma correcta del verbo TO BE + PARTICIPLE
 Importa más la acción que quién lo hizo o no sabemos quién lo hizo
 No cambia el tiempo verbal

- PRESENT SIMPLE He gives lectures

Lectures are given

- PRESENT CONTINUOUS He is giving lectures

Lectures are being given

- PAST SIMPLE He gave lectures

Lectures were given

- PAST CONTINOUS He was giving lectures

Lectures were being given

- PRESENT PERFECT He has given lectures

Lectures have been given

- PAST PERFECT He had given lectures

Lectures had been given

- FUTURE He will give lectures

Lectures will be given

- FUTURE PERFECT He will have given lectures

Lectures will have been given

- PRESENT INFINITIVE He should give lectures

Lectures should be given

- PERFECT INFINITIVE He should have given lectures

Lectures should have been given

Maria gives lectures in the morning

subj obj

Lectures are given by Maria in the morning

subj obj
CAUSATIVE HAVE // HAVE SOMETHING DONE: Cuando nosotros no realizamos la acción, sino que alguien más lo hace
por nosotros (tenemos algo hecho)

SUBJ + HAVE + OBJECT + PARTICIPLE

Have + sth + done

 PRESENT SIMPLE: Anna cleans Maria’s house

Maria has her house cleaned by Anna

 PRESENT CONTINUOUS: Anna is cleaning Maria’s house

Maria is having her house cleaned by Anna

 PAST SIMPLE: Anna cleaned Maria’s house

Maria had her house cleaned by Anna

 PAST CONTINUOUS: Anna was cleaning Maria’s house

Maria was having her house cleaned by Anna

 PRESENT PERFECT: Anna has cleaned Maria’s house

Maria has had her house cleaned by Anna

 PRESENT PERFECT CONT.: Anna has been cleaning Maria’s house

Maria has been having her house cleaned by Anna

 PAST PERFECT: Anna had cleaned Maria’s house

Maria had had her house cleaned by Anna

 WILL: Anna will clean Maria’s house

Maria will have her house cleaned by Anna

 INFINITIVE: Anna must clean Maria’s house

Maria must have her house cleaned by Anna

 GERUND: Anna likes cleaning Maria’s house

Maria likes having her house cleaned by Anna

No cambia el tiempo verbal!!!

GERUND VS INFINITIVES

- GERUNDS

 Como sustantivo ( cuando el verbo es el sujeto u objeto)

Speaking English is difficult
Subj

Her favourite sport is sailing

Obj

 Después de preposiciones
I am good at swimming

 Después de ciertas expresiones: looking forward to, not mind, can’t stand, it’s no good/use, it’s not worth,
there’s no point, it’s a waste of time, spend time.
I don’t mind living here

 Después de verbos de percepción: see, hear, etc. (cuando la acción está sucediendo)
I saw him swimming in the pool

 Después de ciertos verbos: avoid, begin, continue, hate, imgine, keep, like, love, prefer, practice, recommend,
remember, start, stop, suggest.
I enjoy cooking for friends

INFINITIVES

 Después de ciertos verbos: advise, agree, allow, appear, ask, begin, choose, continue, decide, expect, force,
forget, help, hope, learn, manage, offer, order, plan, prepare, promise, refuse, seem, start, want, would like,
would love, afford, arrange, attempt, fail, intend, pretend, propose, threaten, wish.
He forgot to bring his book

 Después de adjetivos que describen sentimientos: happy, posible, sorry, pleased.

She was happy to help

 Después de adjetivos para describir una acción o actividad: difficult, easy, exciting, expensive, fun, hard,
imposible, interesting.
This book is easy (for Karen) to read

 Algunos verbos llevan un OBJETO delante del infinitivo: allow, ask, encourage, expect, forgive, forcé, get, help,
instruct, intend, invite, leave, like, mean, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prefer, recommend, request,
remind, teach, tell, tempt, want, warn.

 Be careful!!

I remember doing it (lo hice y puedo recordarlo)

I must remember to do it (no debo olvidarme)

He stopped drinking (dejó de beber)

He stopped to drink a cup of coffee (dejó de hacer lo que estaba hacienda para tomar una taza de café)
I’ll never forget meeting her (me encontré con ella y nunca lo voy a olvidar)
I forgot to meet her (me olvidé de encontrarme con ella)

Try leaving home earlier if you are late (intentá / probá)

I’ll try to leave home earlier tomorrow (voy a hacer el esfuerzo)

It means training every day (incluye / implica)

I didn’t mean to kick you! (no tuve la intención)

I regret telling him the secret (me arrepiento)

I regret to tell you that it was James (lo siento pero tengo que decirte que…)
REPORTED SPEECH

 REQUEST AND COMMANDS (pedidos y órdenes)

“Please go to the supermarket”
She WANTED ME TO GO to the supermarket
She ASKED ME TO GO to the supermarket
She TOLD ME TO GO to the supermarket

“Please don’t go to the supermarket”

She DIDN’T WANT ME TO GO to the supermarket
She ASKED ME NOT TO GO to the supermarket
She TOLD ME NOT TO GO to the supermarket

 STATEMENTS AND QUESTIONS (declaraciones y preguntas)

She asked me… She said that… She told me that…

 Present Simple  Past Simple

I live in Banderaló … she lived in Banderaló
Where do you live? … where I lived.
 Present Continuous  Past Continuous
I’m living in Banderaló … she was living in Banderaló
Where are you living? … where I was living
 Past Simple  Past Perfect
I lived in Banderaló … she had lived in Banderaló
Where did you live? … where I had lived
 Past Continuous  Past Perfect Continuous
I was living in Banderaló … she had been living in Banderaló
Where were you living? … where I had been living
 Present Perfect  Past Perfect
I have lived in Banderaló … she had lived in Banderaló
Where have you lived? … where I had lived
 Present Perfect Continuous  Past Perfect Continuous
I have been living in Banderaló … she had been living in Banderaló
Where have you been living? … where I had been living
 Will  Would
I will live in Banderaló … she would live in Banderaló
Where will you live? … where I would live
 Can  Could
I can live in Banderaló … she could live in Banderaló
Where can you live? … where I could live
 May  Might
I may live in Banderaló … she might live in Banderaló
Where may you live? … where I might live
 Must / Have to  Had to
I must / have to live in Banderaló … she had to live in Banderaló
Where do you have to live? … where I had to live
 Today / Tonight  That day / that night
 This (morning)  That (morning)
 Tomorrow  The next day
 Yesterday  The day before
 Last (week)  The (week) before
 Next (week)  The following (week)
 Here (aquí)  There (allí)
 This  The / That
  Past Perfect / Should / Could / Might / Ought  Past Perfect / Should / Could / Might / Ought
to / Would (permanecen iguales) to / Would (permanecen iguales)
I had lived in Banderaló … she had lived in Banderaló
I should / ought to live in Banderaló … she should / ought to live in Banderaló

 REPORTING VERBS (reemplazan al SAID, TOLD, ASKED)

- VERBS + TO INFINITIVE: agree, decide, offer, promise, propose, refuse, threaten

“I will buy it for you” She promised to buy it for me

- VERBS + OBJECT + TO INFINITIVE: advise, beg, encourage, invite, order, permit, persuade, remind, tell, warn
“Go to the reception” She ordered me to go to the reception

- VERBS + VERB + -ING: admit, deny, recommend, suggest

“Let’s go to the cinema” She suggested going to the cinema

- VERBS + OBJECT + PREPOSITION + VERB + -ING: accuse sb of, advise sb against, agree with sb on/about,
apologise for, blame sb for, boast about, complain (to sb) about, congratulate sb on, insist on, warn (sb)
against/about
“You have broken the glass” She accused me of breaking the glass

- VERBS + OBJECT + THAT + CLAUSE (subj + verb): inform, persuade, promise, remind, warn
“I think it is a bad idea” She warned me that it was a bad idea

- VERBS + THAT + CLAUSE: admit, announce, agree, believe, complain, decide, demand, deny, explain, inform,
insist, promise, state, suggest, threaten, claim
“I have stolen the money” She admitted that she had stolen the money

 REPORTING VERBS IN THE PASSIVE

Believe, claim, expect, fear, know, report, say, rumour, suppose, think, understand

- IT IS … + THAT + CLAUSE
It is believed that two men robbed the bank
It is said that crocodiles are living near here

- (IT IS) … + TO + INFINITIVE

Two men are believed to be in prison
Crocodiles are said to be living near here

- (IT IS) … + TO + HAVE + PARTICIPLE

Two men are believed to have robbed the bank
DEFINING & NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

 DEFINING: essential information

 NON DEFINING: extra information (van entre comas y se pueden omitir)

RELATIVE PRONOUNS: (pueden cumplir función de sujeto u objeto dentro de la oración; sólo se puede omitir el
pronombre cuando cumple función de objeto; - las oraciones siempre tienen que tener subjeto!)
- WHO / THAT: person
- WHICH / THAT: things or animals
- WHOSE: possession
- WHERE: place
- WHEN: time
- WHY: reason

The boy [ who loves me ] lives in this house.

subj verb

The boy [ who I love ] lives in this house.

obj subj verb

The boy [ I love ] lives in this house.

subj verb
MODAL VERBS

PRESENT PAST

 CAN/ COULD: habilidad / permiso  COULD: habilidad

I can speak English When I was young I could climb trees
Can I go to the toilet? Could I use the phone?

 BE ABLE TO: habilidad  BE ABLE TO: habilidad

I am able to swim 200 metres When I was young I was able to swim 200 metre

 SHOULD / OUGHT TO / HAD BETTER: consejo  SHOULD / OUGHT TO / HAD BETTER + HAVE +
I should study for the next test PARTICIPLE: crítica / arrepentimiento
I should have studied for the last test

 NEED TO / HAVE TO: necesidad / obligación  HAD TO: obligación

I need to study for the test I had to study for the test
I have to study for the test

 MUST: obligación (solo en presente)

I must help at home

 DON’T NEED TO / DON’T HAVE TO: no es  DIDN’T NEED TO / DIDN’T HAVE TO: no es
necesario necesario
I don’t have to bring a dictionary I didn’t have to bring a dictionary

 NEEDN’T HAVE + PARTICIPLE: no era necesario

pero igual lo hice
I needn’t have brought a dictionary but I did it.

 MUST BE: deducción (100% seguro)  MUST HAVE + PARTICIPLE: deducción

It is 8.00. She must be at school She must have been at school

 SHOULD BE: probabilidad (50% seguro)

It is 11.58. She should be at school

 MIGHT / MAY BE: posibilidad (10% seguro)  MIGHT / MAY / COULD HAVE + PARTICIPLE:
Yesterday he was ill. He might be at school today. posibilidad (0% seguro)
He might have been at school

 CAN’T BE: posibilidad negativa  CAN’T HAVE + PARTICIPLE: posibilidad negative

It’s 7.45. She can’t be sleeping. She can’t have been sleeping