Laboratory Manual

Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering

B.Tech-Semester-I & II
Department offered by: Mechanical Engineering
REVISION HISTORY

REVISION
VERSION DATE AUTHOR
SUMMARY

Dr. Pratik T. Kikani

1 21-12-2021 Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical 1st Edition
Engineering

Mr. Hardik N.
Chauhan
2 20-10-2022 Assistant Professor 2nd Edition
Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering

Mr. Hardik N.
Chauhan
3 01-08-2023 Assistant Professor 3rd Edition
Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering
 Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms.______________________ with

Enrolment No________________ of________________ program,
Branch___________________,Semester___________________ has
satisfactorily completed his/her term work in the
course_____________, Course Code___________ for the term
ending in the month of____________ ,Academic year 20 -20 .

Remarks,

_______________ ________________ _______________

Date Faculty In-charge Head
 INDEX

Sr. Experiments Hrs

1 Demonstrate working of VCRS based refrigerator with P-h and T-S diagrams. 2

2 Demonstrate working of VCRS based Air-Conditioning System. 2

3 Demonstrate working of Reciprocating Compressor. 2

4 Demonstrate working of Centrifugal Pump. 2

5 Explain construction & working of Cochran, and Babcock-Wilcox boiler. 2

6 Explain functioning of Different Boiler Mountings & Accessories. 2

Understand Working of Four Stroke Petrol Engine & Perform Experiment for
7 2
Investigate Effect of Variation of Load on Fuel Consumption of An Engine.
Understand Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine & Perform Experiment
8 2
for Investigate Effect of Variation of Load on Fuel Consumption of Engine.
Demonstrate various power transmission methods with specifications of each
9 2
power transmitting elements.
Demonstrate Facing, Turning, and Taper Turning Operation on given
10 2
Component by using Lathe Machine.

11 Demonstrate metal joining process using welding machine. 2

12 Demonstrate various machining methods on hacksaw, and drilling machines. 2

List and explain common troubles and remedies of Internal Combustion

13 2
Engine.

14 List and explain common troubles and remedies of Boiler. 2

Register and complete free certificate online course of Ener gy Literacy

offered by Energy SWARAJ foundation in collaboration with IIT
15 2
Bombay and related discussion for possible ways to optimize energy
usage.
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 1

Demonstrate working of VCRS based Refrigerator with P-h and T-S

diagrams.
The Refrigeration Test Rig enables students to study and understand Vapour
Compression Cycle, its components, principle and working. All the components are
mounted on rigid steel frame. The trainer consists of a hermetically sealed compressor;
forced convection air- cooled condenser, filter / drier, flow meter, expansion device and
shell & coil type evaporator. Separate pressure gauges are provided to record suction and
discharge pressures and digital temperature indicators for various temperatures. The
refrigerant used is R-134a, which is environment friendly.
Calorimeter consists of an insulated stainless steel tank in which heater is fixed.
The heat absorbed by the refrigerant is balanced by heater input. The heater is immersion
type resistive water heater. The calorimeter temperature can be set by a digital thermostat.
Adequate safety devices such as HP/LP cut-out, heating thermostat, and overload
protection for compressor are incorporated to prevent any malfunctioning of the system.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The Refrigeration Test Rig works on Vapour Compression Cycle. The refrigeration
(i.e. process of maintaining a closed space temperature below ambient temperature) is
accomplished by continuously circulating, evaporating and condensing a fixed supply of
refrigerant in a closed system.
Evaporation occurs at a low temperature and low pressure while condensation
occurs at a high temperature and pressure. Thus it is possible to transfer heat from an
area of low temperature to an area of high temperature (the surroundings).
The compressor pumps the low-pressure refrigerant from the evaporator, increases
its pressure, and discharges the high-pressure gas to the condenser. In the condenser, the
refrigerant rejects its heat to the surroundings by passing air over it. At that pressure,
the refrigerant loses its latent heat and liquefies.
Then the refrigerant passes through the drier/filter where any residual moisture or
foreign particles present, these are plugged. The flow of refrigerant into the evaporator
is controlled by expansion device where its pressure and consequently temperature is
lowered to the saturation temperature at the corresponding pressure.
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 The low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator where it absorbs heat from
the surrounding medium and evaporates. The compressor draws the cold repeats. The
required instrumentation is provided to measure the various parameters at different points.
This includes pressure gauges, temperature indicators and controller, energy-meter, heater
for applying load and flow meter to measure the refrigerant flow.

VCR System

Fig.1.1 VCRS based refrigeration System

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS:

 Place the machine in the proper position where its level is horizontal and it is well
ventilated.
 The machine must have at least 1.0 meter clearances from dall sides.
 Give 230 volts, 50Hz, and 1 phase supply to the unit.
 Incoming cable should be size (at least 1.5 sq. mm) to prevent overheating of it.
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 The electrical point should have a MCB of 16 Amps rating.
 Ensure proper earthling.
 Fill the calorimeter or isothermal bath with clean water.
 Start the compressor and heater after 5 seconds interval by putting the switch ON.
 The pump in the calorimeter will equalize the temperature in the tank. Refrigerant
passes through the tubes and water is around it. Refrigerant will lose its enthalpy to
water and it will evaporate. Water temperature will reduce.
 The heater will offset the cooling effect & maintain the temperature of the bath
practically constant.
 Adjust the heater load with the help of dimmer such that the water temperature remains
constant. Record the time required for 10 pulses of compressor & heater energy meters.
Here, Heater Load = Refrigeration Effect.
 Record all the readings as per the observation table.
 Allow at least 1/2 hrs running time for correct results.
 Calculate the results as per the procedure.
CAUTION
 Always start the machine only after ensuring adequate water level in the tank.
There is a small submersible pump in the tank. It should never be run dry,
otherwise it will overheat and go out of order.
 Do-not switch on the heater in the dry tank.
 When not in use for more than 1 week, remove the water from tank, and keep it dry.
 Do-not tamper with the temperature as well as the pressure settings.

CONCLUSION

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ______________________________________

3
 EXPERIMENT NO: -02

Demonstrate working of VCRS based Air-Conditioning System.

Air conditioning is the controlling of air temperature, its humidity, its purity, noise
free and its flow rate at a certain place to produce a comfort zone. The air conditioning
system is the device that helps us keep our surroundings at the temperature we want. You can
feel the effects of the system wherever you go because it is so common.
It can be installed in our houses, workplaces, cars, and even modern religious
institutions. In other words, it can be applied in both domestic and professional environments.
Air con, AC, and A/C are common terms for air conditioning.
It includes a fan to circulate the conditioned air within the room. The enclosed area
can be a building or a vehicle. Today, we’ll look at the definition, diagram, purposes, parts,
types, and operating principle of an air conditioning system.

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 There are two main types of air conditioning systems: window systems and split
systems, which are further divided into mini-split and central systems. In everyday language,
these are commonly referred to as window ACs or split ACs.
Regardless of the type of installation, all air conditioners consist of four main components,
which are listed below:
Evaporator
An evaporator is basically a heat exchanger coil that is responsible for collecting heat
from the interior of a room by means of a refrigerating gas. This component is called an
evaporator and is where the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat and evaporates into a gas.
The most common refrigerant gases used in air conditioning systems include hydro
fluorocarbons or HFCs such as R-410A, chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs such as R-22 and
hydrocarbons such as R-290.
Compressor
As the name implies, the gaseous refrigerant is compressed here. It is located in the
outdoor unit, i.e. in the part that is installed outside the house.

Figure 2.1 Main Parts of Window ac

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Condenser
The condenser absorbs the evaporated refrigerant from the compressor, converts it
back into a liquid and expels the heat to the outside. Of course, it is also located on the
outside unit of the split AC.
Expansion Valve
The expansion valve, also known as a throttle device, is located between the two
coils, the cooling coils of the evaporator and the hot coils of the condenser. It controls the
amount of refrigerant moving towards the evaporator. In the case of window ACs, the three
components mentioned above are all located in a small metal box installed in a window
opening.
These are the main components of an air conditioner. Let’s look at how they work together to
make an air conditioner do what it does.

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty with Date: ___________________________________

6
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 3

Demonstrate working of reciprocating compressor.

Reciprocating Compressors and Its types

This type of compressor uses piston-cylinder arrangement to compress the air. Whenever
something moves back and forth it is considered as moving in reciprocating motion.
Similarly, in this type piston moves back and forth inside the cylinder and compress the air.
There are two sets of valves that take care of air intake and exhaust.

Figure 3.1 Working Principle

The compressor takes inside successive amount of volume of air from intake valve and
confined it in closed surface at that time piston moves downward with the closure of intake
valve. Then there is compression of air by reducing its volume. Now the piston moves
upward and compress the air and then displace the compressed air through exhaust valve.
And then again intake take place and cycle repeat itself.
This type of compressor also called positive displacement machines. They are available in
both as lubricated and oil-free.
The reciprocating compressor is single acting when the compressing is accomplished using
only one side of piston and double acting when both the sides of piston used.

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Applications
The reciprocating compressor generally seen where there is requirement of high pressure and
low flow(or discontinuous flow up to 30 bars). Mostly where the air is used for hand-tools,
cleaning dust, small paint jobs, commercial uses, etc.

Figure 3.2 Air compressor

Advantages
1. Relatively Low Maintenance Cost
2. Ability to have high pressure and high power
3. Can be located close to point‐of‐use avoiding lengthy piping runs and pressure drops
4. Durable, efficient and affordable
5. Significant product life
Disadvantages
1. Sounds Too Much
2. Requires Room for it with isolating box
3. High outlet temperature of compressed air
4. High oil content in air piping

8
Types of Reciprocating air compressor

Single acting
They are the reciprocating compressor which has piston working only in one direction. The
other end of the piston is often free or open from which no work is performed. There is only
one side compression or the upper part of the piston is used to compress the air. The bottom
part is open to crankcase and is not utilized for the compression of air.

Figure 3.3 Single acting reciprocating compressors

Double acting

As from its name it uses its both sides to compress the air. These types of compressors have
two sets of suction/intake and delivery/exhaust valve on both sides of the piston. As the
piston moves up and down, both sides of the piston is utilized in compressing the air. The
intake and exhaust valve operate corresponding to the movement of the piston or with the
stroke of the compressor. The air is compressed accordingly and delivered continuously as
compared to single-acting air compressor.

Here both of sides are effectively used for compressing the air.

9
 Figure 3.4 Double acting reciprocating compressor
V-shaped compressors

They are come under air cooled compressors with concentric valves mounted on each
cylinder head unit which are placed in V-shaped i.e. at the angle of 90 degrees from each
other and may or may not be connected to same crank pin on the crank shaft.

They are compressors of higher capacity so the cooling is required. The v-shaped is given to
such compressor for achieving better torque and balancing by displacing different units at
some angle

Figure 3.5 V-shaped Reciprocating compressors

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CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

11
 EXPERIMENT NO:- 4

Demonstrate working of Centrifugal Pump.

“The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into

hydraulic energy are called pumps.”

Main parts of a centrifugal pump

Introduction
Centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic machine which develops dynamic pressure
of liquid by virtue of rotation for pumping of liquid to a higher height. In centrifugal
pump, liquid in the impeller of a pump is made to rotate by external force, so that it is
thrown away from the center of rotation. As constant supply of liquid is made available
at the center, liquid can be pumped to a higher level.
The unit consists of a centrifugal pump driven by a D.C.motor. Input to motor is
measured by an energy meter. A measuring tank is provided to measure the discharge.
Suction vacuum and discharge is measured by gauges. A gate valve on discharge pipe

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 varies the head. Thus, performance of pump can be estimated at various speeds and
heads.
Working of a Centrifugal Pump

“A centrifugal pump works on a principle that when the liquid is rotated by an

external prime mover, it is thrown away from the axis of rotation and a
centrifugal head is imparted which makes it possible to raise to the higher
elevation.”
Before starting a centrifugal pump, the liquid is filled in the suction pipe,
impeller, casing and a delivery pipe up to a delivery valve. This is known as priming.
During the priming, the delivery valve is kept closed.
After priming, a prime mover (electric motor) is started. The energy given to the
impeller by a prime mover builds up the centrifugal force which throws the liquid
towards the impeller periphery. This causes a pressure gradient in the suction pipe, i.e.
a partial vacuum exists at the impeller eye while the liquid in the sump is at
atmospheric pressure.
So, the liquid from the sump is sucked in towards the impeller eye. When the
liquid passes through the impeller, it receives energy and hence, both the pressure and
velocity increase.
Liquid enters into the casing. Due to the incremental cross-sectional area of the
casing towards the delivery pipe, the velocity of liquid decreases and pressure energy
increases.
With high-pressure energy and negligible kinetic energy, liquid enters into the
delivery pipe and is lifted to the required height. The process is continuous as long as
motion is given to the impeller and there is a supply of liquid.

SPECIFICATIONS
 Centrifugal pump 25 × 25 mm size, base mounted,
 max. total head -11m, discharge 1.5lps. at 2900 rpm .
 Motor:- 1 H.P d.c .motor directly coupled to pump .
 Measuring tank 400 × 400 × 450mm. height, fitted with a gauge tube and drain valve.
 Sump tank 600 × 900 × 600. height.
 Gate valve to control the head.
 Pressure gauge to measure discharge pressure.
 Vacuum gauge to measure suction vacuum.

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 Energy meter to measure input to the motor.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
 Fill up sufficient water in sump tank.
 Open the priming nipple plug (At the top of pump) and fill up water up to the nipple.
 Replace the plug.
 Shut off the discharge valve.
 Start the pump. As discharge valve is closed, no discharge will be observed, but
discharge pressure will be indicated. This is called ‘Shut off Head’ of the pump.
 Slowly open the discharge valve, so that small discharge is observed.
 Note down discharge head, suction vacuum and time required for 10 liters of water
level rise in a measuring tank and 10 revolutions of energy meter disc.
 Note down the observation at different valve openings.
 Repeat the procedure 5 to 7 times for different speeds.

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ______________________________________

14
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 5
Demonstrate construction & working of Cochran, and Babcock-
Wilcox boiler.

A boiler is a steel pressure vessel in which water under pressure is converted into steam
by the application of combustion. In other words, it is simply a heat exchanger which
uses radiant heat and hot flue gases, liberated from burning fuel, to generate steam and
hot water for heating and processing loads.
Classification of Steam Boilers
According to relative position of water and hot gases.
a. Fire Tube boiler - hot gases pass through fire tubes which are surrounded by
water
b. Water tube - water flows inside the tubes and the hot flue gases flow out side
the tubes.
According to the axis of the shell
a. Vertical boiler – the axis of the shell is vertical.
b. Horizontal boiler – the axis of the shell is horizontal
c. Inclined boiler – the axis of the boilers is inclined.
According to the method of firing
a. Externally fired boilers – furnace is located outside the shell.
b. Internally fired boilers – furnace is located inside the shell, means combustion
takes place Inside the boiler shell.
According to the Method of Water circulation
a. Forced Circulation boilers - water is circulated by pumps which is driven by
motor
b. Natural Circulation boilers - water is circulated by natural convection currents
which are set up due to the temperature difference produced by the application
of heat.
According to the Pressure of steam
a. High pressure – boilers working pressure is less than 10 bars.
Example: Babcock and Wilcox boiler
b. Medium pressure boilers – working pressure is 10 to 70 bars.
Example: Lancashire and locomotive boiler
c. Low pressure boilers – working pressure is above 70 bars.

15
 Example: Cochran and Cornish boiler.
According to the mobility of boiler
a. Stationary boilers – it is used for stationary plants.
b. Mobile boilers – it can move from one place to another.
According to the number of tubes in the boiler
a. Single tube boilers – they have only one fire or water tube.
b. Multi tube boilers – they have more than one fire or water tubes.

General terms used in Steam Boiler

1. Cylindrical shell
It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and rewetted and welded
together. The ends of shell are closed by means of plates in different shapes. It should
have sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.
2. Combustion chamber
It is the space, generally below the boiler shell, meant for burning fuel in order to
produce steam from the water contained in the shell.
3. Grate
It is a platform, in the combustion chamber, upon which fuel is burnt. The grate
consists of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air can pass through them.
4. Furnace
It is a chamber formed by the space above grate and bellows the boiler shell in which
combustion take place. It is also called a Fire box.
5. Fire Hole
It is the hole through which coal is added to the furnace.
6. Ash Pit (ash pan)
It is the area in which the ash of burnt coal is collected.
7. Smoke chamber (smoke box)
The waste gases are collected here & then release to the chimney & then to atmosphere.
8. Man Hole
It is a hole provided on to the boiler shell so that a workman can go inside the boiler for
Inspection.
9. Hand Holes
It is a hole provided on the shell to give to give east access for thr purpose of cleaning
the water tubes or some other internal parts of boiler.

16
10. Mud box
It collects all impurities present in the water. It is at the bottom of the barrel or shell.
These impurities are removed time to time by help of blow off cock.
11. Steam collecting pipe
When the steam leaving the boiler, it contains certain amount of water.Antipriming
pipe is used to separate water particles from the steam and to collect dry steam from
boiler.
12. Mountings
These are the safety devices for the safe working of steam boiler and they are mounted
on the steam boiler like Water indicator valve, pressure gauge, fusible plug, etc.
13. Accessories
These devices are used for increasing the efficiency of boilers. They are integral parts
of the boiler and are not mounted on the boiler. They include Super heater, Economizer,
etc.

Fire Tube boiler – In Fire tube boiler hot gases pass through fire tubes which are
surrounded by water
List of Fire tube Boiler:
1. Cochran Boiler
2. Lancashire boiler
3. Locomotive boiler.
4. Cornish boiler.
5. Scotch marine boiler.
6. Vertical fire-tube boiler.
7. Horizontal return tubular boiler.

COCHRAN BOILER:
Characteristics of boiler:
 Vertical,
 Multi Tubes,
 Fire Tube,
 Internally Fired,
 Natural Circulated

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Construction:
It is a fire tube boiler in which the flue gases from the furnace are passed through a
number of small tubes surrounded by water. It consists of an external cylindrical shell
(CS), crown and fire box (F), all being of hemispherical shapes. The bottom most
portion is ash-pit (A) and above this is great (G) on which the coal is burnt in presence
of air. The combustion chamber (CC) is lined up with fire bricks (B) to reduce the heat
losses. A door (D) is provided in the smoke box for cleaning and maintenance of the
boiler. A mud hole (H) is provided at the bottom most point for draining out the water
from the boiler.

Figure 5.1 Cochran boiler

Working
The fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is collected and disposed out of from ash pit. The
gases of combustion produced by burning of fuel enter the combustion chamber
through the flue tube and strike against firebrick lining which direct them to pass
through number of horizontal tubes, being surrounded by water. After which the gases
escape to the atmosphere through smoke box and chimney.

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Advantages
1) It is compact and portable boiler therefore minimum floor area is required.
2) Initial cost of boiler is less
3) It can be moved and set up readily in different locations.
4) Quick and easy installation.
5) Any type of fuel can be used. (Coal or Oil)

Water Tube boiler – In Water tube boiler water flows inside the tubes and the hot
flue gases flow outside the tubes.
List of Water Tube Boilers:
1. Babcock & Wilcox boiler.
2. Stirling boiler.
3. D-type Boiler.
4. M-Type Boilers.
5. Low Water Content.
BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER
Characteristics of boiler:
1. Horizontal, Multi-water tube,
2. Externally fired,
3. Natural circulation of water,
4. Forced circulation of air and hot gases,
5. Solid as well as liquid fuel fired
Construction
Figure shows a Babcock and Wilcox boiler having longitudinal drum. It consists of
number of inclined water tubes (WT) connected between the uptake header (UH) and
down take header (DH). Headers are provided with hand holes in the front tubes and
are covered with caps (C). Whole combustion chamber is divided into number of parts
with the help of baffles (B) so that the hot gases first move from the furnace (F)
upwards between the tubes and then move downward and upwards between the baffles
over the tubes and finally these are exhausted to the chimney through the damper (DP).
The dampers regulate the amount of flue gases and thus the supply of air to the grate.

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Doors (D) are provided for a man to enter in the boiler for cleaning and repairing
purposes.

Figure 5.2 Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

Working:
The feed water enters the front of the drum (DR) and travels to the back part of the
drum and then descends through the vertical tube to the down take header.
From here the water enters into the water tubes to the uptake header and then again to
the drum.
The water tubes near the uptake header are in contact with the hotter flue gases
compared to the portion near the down take header due to which the water in the uptake
header rises due to decreased density and enters the drum which is replaced by colder
water from the down take header. Water continues to circulate like this till it is
evaporated.
The superheating of steam is done in the super heater (SH). It consists of large number
of steel tubes. Wet steam from the boiler drum enters in the outer tube (OT), then
passes into the superheated tubes and during its passage it gets further heated up.

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Superheated steam now enters into the inner tubes (IT) and from here it is withdrawn
through a stop valve (SV).
Advantages
1) The steam generation capacity of the boiler is very high, about 2000 to 40000 kg/hr
2) Replacement of defective tubes is easy.
3) The draught losses as compared to other boilers are minimum.
4) It is used in power station for generating large quantity of steam.
5) Boiler is required less space area compared to fire tube boilers, and offers greater
Operational safety.

CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

21
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 6

Demonstrate functioning of different Boiler Mountings & Accessories.

MOUNTINGS
These are different fittings and devices which are necessary for the operation and safety
of a boiler normally these devices are mounted over boiler shell
Water level indicator
It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an
observer. It is a safety device, upon which the correct working of the boiler depends.
This fitting may be seen in front of the boiler, and are generally two in number.
A water level indicator, mostly employed in the steam boiler is shown in figure. It
consists of three cocks and a glass tube. Steam cock keeps the glass tube in connection
with the steam space. Water cock puts the glass tube in connection with the water in the
boiler. Drain cock is used at frequent intervals to ascertain that the steam and water
cocks are clear.
In the working of a steam boiler and for the proper functioning of the water level
indicator, the steam and water cocks are opened and the drain cock is closed. In this
case, the handles are placed in a vertical position as shown in figure. The rectangular
passage at the ends of the glass tube contains two balls.

Figureure 6.1 Water Level Indicator

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In case the glass tube is broken, the two balls are carried along its passages to the ends
of the glass tube. It is thus obvious, that water and steam will not escape out. The glass
tube can be
easily replaced by closing the steam and water cocks and opening the drain cock.
When the steam boiler is not working, the bolts may be removed for cleaning. The glass
Tube is kept free from leaking by means of conical ring and the gland nut.
Pressure gauge
A pressure gauge is used to measure
the pressure of the steam inside the
steam boiler. It is fixed in front of
the steam boiler. The pressure
gauges generally use are of Bourden
type. A Bourden pressure gauge, in
its simplest form, consists of an
elliptical elastic tube ABC bent into
an arc of a circle, as shown in figure.
This bent up tube is called Bourden’s
tube. One end of the tube gauge is
fixed and connected to the steam
space in the boiler. Figureure 6.2 pressure gauge

The other end is connected to a sector through a link. The steam, under pressure, flows
into the tube. As a result of this increased pressure, the Bourden’s tube tends to a result
of this increased pressure; the Burden’s tube tends to straighten itself.
Since the tube is encased in a circular curve, therefore it tends to become circular
instead of straight. With the help of a simple pinion and sector arrangement, the elastic
deformation of the Bourdon’s tube rotates the pointer. This pointer moves over a
calibrated scale, which directly gives the gauge pressure.
Safety valve
These are the devices attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to
excessive internal pressure of steam. A Steam boiler is, usually, provided with two
safety valves. These are directly placed on the boiler. In brief, the function of a safety
valve is to blow off the

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steam when the pressure of steam inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure. The
following are the four types of safety valves:
1. Lever Safety valve,
2. Dead weight safety valve,
3. High steam and low water safety valve and
4. Spring loaded safety valve.
It may be noted that the first three types of the safety valves are usually employed with
stationary boilers, but the fourth type is mainly used for locomotive and marine boilers.

Dead weight safety valve:-

A dead weight safety valve, used for
stationary boilers, is shown in figure.
The valve is made of gun metal, and
rests on its gun metal seat. It is fixed
to the top of a steel pipe. This pipe is
bolted to the mountings block,
riveted to the top of the shell. Both
the valve and pipe are covered by a
case which contains weights. These
weights keep the valve on its seat
under normal working pressure. The
case hangs freely over the valve to
which it is secured by means of a Figureure 6.3 Dead Weight Safety Valve

nut.
When the pressure of steam exceeds the normal pressure, the valves as well as the case
(along with the weights) are lifted up from its seat. This enables the steam to escape
through the discharge pipe, which carries the steam outside the boiler house. The lift of
the valve is controlled by the studs. The head of the studs projects into the interior of
the casing. The center of gravity of the dead weight safety valve is considerably below
the valve which ensures that the load hangs vertically. The dead weight safety valve has
the advantage that it cannot be readily tempered because any added weight must be
equal to the total increased pressure of steam on the valve. The only disadvantage of
these valves is the heavy load which these valves carry.

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 Blow of cock:-
The principal functions of a blow off
cock are:
 To empty the boiler
whenever required.
 To discharge the mud, scale
or sediments which are
accumulated at the bottom of
the boiler.

Figureure 6.4 Blow off cock

 The blow-off cock, as shown in figure, is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum and
consists of a conical plug fitted to the body or casing.
 The casing is packed, with asbestos packing, in grooves round the top and bottom of the
plug. The asbestos packing is made tight and plug bears on the packing.
 It may be noted that the cocks packed in this way keep the grip better under high
pressure and easily operated than unpacked.
 The shank of plug passes through a gland and stuffing box in the cover.
 The plug is held down by a yoke and two stud bolts (not shown in the figureure). The
yoke forms a guard on it. There are two vertical slots on the inside of a guard for the
box spanner to be used for operating the cock.

Fusible plug:-
It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace
or the fire. Its object is to put off the fire in
the furnace of the boiler when the level of
water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit,
and thus avoids the explosion which may
take place due to overheating of the
furnace plate. A fusible plug consists of a
hollow gun metal plug P1 as shown in
figureure.
Figure 6.5 Fusible Plug

25
It is screwed to the furnace crown. A Second hollow gun metal plug P2 is screwed to the first
plug. There is also a third hollow gun metal plug P3 separated from P1 by a ring of fusible
metal. The inner surface of P2 and outer surface of P3 are grooved so that when the fusible
metal is poured into the plug, P2 and P3 are locked together. A hexagonal flange is provided
on plug P1 to take a spanner for fixing or removing the plug P1. There is a hexagonal flange
on plug P2 for fixing or removing it.

Figure 6.6 Schematic Diagram of Steam Power Plant

ACCESSORIES.

These are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler, and help in running
efficiently. Though there are many types of boiler accessories, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view 1. Super heater; 2. Economizer 3. Air Preheater.

SUPERHEATER

A Super heater is an important device of a steam generating unit. Its purpose is to increase the
temperature of saturated steam without raising its pressure. It is generally an integral part of a
boiler, and is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace. The heat, given up by
these flue gases, is used in superheating the steam. Such super heaters, which are installed
within the boiler, are known as integral super heaters.
ASudgen’s super heater commonly employed with Lancashire boilers is shown in figure. It
consists of two mild steel boxes or heaters from which hangs a group of solid drawn tubes
bent to U- form.
The ends of these tubes are expanded into the headers. The tubes are arranged in groups of
four and one pair of headers generally carries ten of these groups or forty tubes in all. The
outside of the tubes can be cleaned through the space between the headers. This space is
closed by covers.

26
 Figure 6.7 Super-heater

The steam enters at one end of the rear header and leaves at the opposite end of the front
header. The overheating of super heater tubes is prevented by the use of a balanced damper
which is operated by the handle. The super heater is an action when the damper is in a
position as shown in the figure. If the damper is an vertical position, the gases pass directly
into the bottom flue without passing over the super heater tubes. In this way, the super heater
is out of action.
By placing the damper in intermediate position, some of the gases will pass over the super
heater tubes and the remainder will pass directly to the bottom flue. It is thus obvious, that
required degree of heat for superheating may be obtained by altering the position of the
damper.
It may be noted that when the super heater is in action, the stop valves G and H are opened
and F is closed. When the steam is taken directly from the boiler, the valves G and H are
closed and F is open.

ECONOMISER
An economizer is a device used to heat feed water by utilizing the heat in the exhaust flue
gases before leaving through the chimney. As the name indicates, the economizer improves
the economy of the steam boiler. A well known type of economizer is Greens economize. It

27
is extensively used for stationary boilers, especially those of Lancashire type. It consists of a
large number of vertical pipes or tubes placed in an enlargement of the flue gases between the
boiler and chimney as shown in fig. these tubes are 2.75 meters long, 114 mm in external
diameter and 11.5 mm thick and are made of cast iron. The economizer is built up of
transverse section. Each section consists of generally six or eight vertical tubes. These tubes
are joined to horizontal pipes or boxes of the different sections are connected to the pipe,
while the bottom boxes are connected to pipe The pipes are on opposite sides, which are
outside the brickwork enclosing the economizer.

Figure 6.8 Economizer.

The feed water is pumped into the economizer at and enters the pipe If then passes into the
bottom boxes and then into the top boxes through the tubes. It is now led by the pipe to the
pipe and then to the boiler. There is a blow-off cock at the end of the pipe opposite to the feed
inlet The purpose of this valve is to remove mud or sediment deposited in the bottom boxes.
At the end of pipe (opposite to the feed outlet) there is a safety valve. It is essential that the
vertical tubes may be kept free from deposits of soot, which greatly reduce the efficiency of
the economizer.
Each tube is provided with scraper for this purpose. The scrapers of two adjoining sections of
tubes are grouped together, and coupled by rods and chains to the adjacent group of scrapers.
The chain passes over a pulley so that one group of scrapers balances the adjacent group.

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AIR PREHEATER
An air preheater is used to recover heat
from the exhaust flue gases. It is installed
between the economizer and the chimney.
The air required for the purpose of
combustion is drawn through the air
preheater where its temperature is raised. It
is then passed through ducts to the furnace.
The air is passed through the tubes of the
heater internally while the hot flue gases
are passed over the outside of the tubes
. Figure 6.9 Air Preheater
The following Advantages are obtained by using an Air Preheater
 The preheated air gives higher furnace temperature which results in more heat transfer
to the water and thus increases the evaporative capacity per kg of fuel.
 There is an increase of about 2 % in the boiler efficiency for each 35-40° C rise in
temperature of air.
 It results in better combustion with less soot, smoke and ash.
 It enables a low grade fuel to be burnt with les excess air.

CONCLUSION

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

29
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 7

Understand working of four stroke petrol engine and perform

experiment for investigate effect of variation of load on fuel
consumption of an engine.

FOUR STROKE (S.I) ENGINE.

In a four stroke engine, the cycles of operations is completed in 4 strokes of piston or 2
revolution of crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180° & hence the fuel cycle consists
of 720° of crank rotation.

Figure 7.1 4 Stroke Petrol Engine

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The 4-Strokes are: -
1.Suction or Intake Stroke: -
In starts at, when the piston is at top
dead centre & about to move
downwards. The inlet valve is open
at that time and exhaust valve is
closed due to suction created by the
motion of the piston towards the
bottom dead centre, the charge
containing air fuel mixture is drawn
into the cylinder. When the piston
reaches BDC the suction stroke ends
and inlet valve is closed.
2. Compression Stroke: - The charge taken into the cylinder during suction stroke
is compressed by return stroke of piston. During this stroke both the valves are closed.
The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the
clearance volume. At the end, the mixture is ignited with the help of electrode of spark
plug. During the burning Process the chemical energy of fuel is converted to heat
energy. The pressure is increased in the end due to heat release.
3. Expansion Stroke: - The burnt gases escape out and the exhaust valve opens but
inlet valve remaining closed the piston moves from BDC to TDC and sweeps the burnt
gases out at almost atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve gets closed at the end of
this stroke. Thus, for one complete cycle of engine, there is only one power stroke
while crank shaft makes 2 revolutions.
4. Exhaust Stroke: - During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve is
open and inlet valve is closed. The piston moves up in cylinder pushing out the burnt
gases through the exhaust valve. As the piston reaches the TDC, again the inlet valve
opens and fresh charge is taken in during next downward movement of the piston and
the cycle is repeated.

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Construction Details
• Cylinder: - It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a
reciprocating produces.
• Piston: - It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving
boundary of combustion system. It fits in cylinder perfectly.
Combustion Chamber: - It is the space enclosed in the upper part of cylinder, by the
cylinder head & the piston top during combustion process.
• Inlet Manifold: - The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of
engine.
• Exhaust Manifold: - The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust
valve of engine.
• Inlet / Exhaust Valves: - They are provided on the cylinder head to head to regulate
the charge coming into or going out of the chamber.
• Spark Plug: - It is used to initiate the combustion process in S.I engines.
• Connected Rod: - It connects piston & the crank shaft.
• Crank shaft: - It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary
motion of output shaft.
• Gudgeon pins: - It forms a link between connection rod and the piston.
• Cam shaft: - It controls the opening & closing of the valves.
• Cam: - They open the valves at the correct tunes.
• Carburettor: - Used in S.I engine for atomizing & vaporizing and mixture it with air
in varying proportion.

APPARATUS: - MPFI test rig of SWIFT engine

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the water inlets of the engine jacket calorimeter and Hydraulic
Dynamometer to a 1.5 kg/cm2 constant head water source.
2. Open the inlet gate valves of the engine jacket and calorimeter to suitable desired
flow rate.
3. Connect the battery terminals to a well charged 12 V battery with the terminals
marked („+‟) („-„) respectively to the engine cable terminals.

32
4. Connect the instrumentation power input plug to a 230V, single phase power source.
Now all the digital meters namely; RPM, Fuel weight and Flow rate, Air Flow and
Temperature Indicator display the respective readings.
5. Ensure to that the fuel is available in the tank
6. Check the lubricating oil level in the sump with the dipstick provided.
7. Ensure all the toggle switches provided for the mores test are in engaged position.
Also ensure the accelerator knob is in cut off position (idle condition).
8. Insert the ignition key into the starter switch and turn it clockwise & Turn the key
further clockwise to start the engine. Now the engine is running at idle speed. (Approx.
900 – 1000 RPM) on the digital RPM indicator. Keep the Engine warmed up for 15
minutes.
9. Increase the speed by turning the accelerator knob clockwise until the RPM Indicator
reads approx. 1500 RPM and run the Engine at the same speed at least for 10 – 15
minutes
10. Now open the dynamometer inlet gate valve gradually to load the engine through
hydraulic dynamometer. The load is indicated on a digital load indicator in kg. The
dynamometer arm having a length of R = 0.32 mts. gives the torque. T = W x R where
„W‟ is the load indicated. Now the engine speed decreases due to the application of
load. Operate the acceleration knob simultaneously with the hydraulic dynamometer
inlet gate valve and set the load to ¼ of the full load and bring the engine speed to 1500
RPM.
11. Note down all the required parameters mentioned below :
a. Speed of the Engine (N) from Digital RPM Indicator.
b. Load W
c. Fuel Consumption from Digital Fuel Indicator in seconds.
d. Quantity of Air from Anemometer in m/s
12. Repeat the step no. 10 & 11 to load the
13. With the above parameters the calculations for obtaining the characteristics curves
are drawn
14. The heat balance sheet is also obtained from the parameters recorded at full load
condition.
a. It is preferred to take readings in the ascending order of loads.
b. While shutting down remove the load on the engine simultaneously
reducing the acceleration

33
Difference between IC and EC Engine:

Internal Combustion Engine External Combustion Engine

34
CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

35
 EXPERIMENT NO:- 8
Understand Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine and Perform
Experiment For Investigate Effect of Variation of Load on Fuel
Consumption of an Engine.

FOUR STROKE (C.I.) ENGINE.

In four strokes C.I. Engine compression ratio is from 16 to 20. During suction stroke air is
inducted. In C.I. engines high pressure. Fuel pump and injectors are provided to inject the
fuel into combustion chamber and ignition chamber system is not necessary.
Construction & Working Details:
Construction
Construction is same as petrol engine but spark plug is replaced by Fuel injector.
Working
SUCTION STROKE:
With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during this stroke, the inlet valve
opens and the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder; the exhaust
valve however remains closed.
COMPRESSION STROKE:
The air drawn at atmospheric pressure during the suction stroke is compressed to high
pressure and temperature as the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves do not open during any part of this stroke.
POWER STROKE OR EXPANSION STROKE:
As the piston starts moving from T.D.C to B.D.C, the quantity of fuel is injected into the hot
Compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector and it (fuel) starts burning at constant
pressure
The fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke but in actual practice the ignition of the
Fuel starts before the end of the compression stroke. The hot gases of the cylinder expand
adiabatically Thus doing work on the piston.
EXHAUST STROKE:
The piston moves from the B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases escape to the atmosphere
through the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve closes and

36
the cycle is completed.

Figure. 8.1 P-V and T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle

Figure 8.2 4 Stroke Diesel Engine

37
Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine:

Petrol Engine / SI Engine/Constant Diesel Engine / CI Engine / Constant

Volume Engine /Otto Cycle Engine Pressure Engine /Diesel Cycle Engine

38
CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

39
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 9

Demonstrate Various Power Transmission Methods with Specifications of

each Power Transmitting Elements.

INTRODUCTION:
The power is required in various workshop operations. The electricity is main source
of power for machinery. The electricity is converted into mechanical energy by means of an
electric motor. The machine uses this mechanical energy to perform various operations.
Drive is an intermediate mechanism which transmits power and motion from the
prime mover (or electric motor) to the machine. The mechanisms which are used to transmit
the required motion and power from one shaft to another shaft are called Mechanical drives.
These drives are extensively used in automobiles, workshops, processing and transport
industry.
Elements of power transmission
The main elements of power transmission system are Nuts, bolts, pins, keys and couplings,
etc. which are provided to hold the two components of machine elements together.
Driving and driven shafts for transmit motion and power from one place to another place.
Belts, chains, gears are as connectors for transmission of motion and power from driving
shaft to driven shaft.
Axles, bearings, brackets etc. to provide support to other elements of a machine.

Shaft, spindle and axle

Shaft
A shaft is a rotating machine element which transmits power. The power is delivered to the
shaft by the application of tangential force and the resulting turning moment set up in the
shaft allows the power to be transmitted from one point to another point.
Generally shafts of cylindrical shape are used but shafts with square and hexagonal cross
section are also used in practice. Hollow shafts are preferred since these are 50 % lighter in
weight compared to solid shafts for the same rigidity and stiffness. Hollow shafts also used
whenever it is required to pass through components of a machine.

40
Spindle
A spindle is a short revolving shaft that transmits motion either to a cutting tool or a work
piece.
Axle
An axle is a machine element which is used for transmitting bending moment and carries
such rotating parts as wheels and gears. An axle gives support to the rotating body.

Figure 9.1 Shaft Figure 9.2 Spindle

Figure 9.3 Axle

Types of mechanical drives

There are mainly three types of mechanical drives
1. Belt drive
2. Chain drive
3. Gear drive

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Belt drive
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted
depends upon the following factors
1. The velocity of belt.
2. The tension under which belt is placed on pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
Belt drives are one of the common methods used whenever power or rotary motion is
required to transmit between two parallel shafts.

Types of Belt drive

Gear drive
A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed
part in order to transmit toque and power.
In order to transmit a definite power from one shaft to another shaft to the projection on one
disc and recesses on another disc can be made which can mesh with each other.

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Advantages of gear drive
1. It is a positive drive (no slip) i.e. it transmits exact velocity ratio from one shaft to another
shaft.
2. It can transmit very large power.
3. High transmission efficiency.
4. It requires less space.
5. This drive is more reliable.
Disadvantages of gear drive
1. Manufacturing cost is high.
2. Maintenance cost is also high due to lubrication requirements.
3. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
4. It requires precise alignment of shafts.

TYPES OF GEARS:

1. SPUR GEAR
Spur gear is the most common and most widely used and least expansive gear. Spur gear is
a wheel with teeth cut parallel with axis of rotation. Teeth are straight. Spur gears are used to
transmit motion from one shaft to another shaft that is parallel to it. Spur gears are made in
great variety of sizes from less than 25 mm to several cm in diameter. Spur gears are made of
steel, brass, other metal and plastics.

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Figure 9.4 Spur Gear Figure 9.5 Helical Gear

Figure 9.6 Bevel Gear Figure 9.7 Herring Bone Gear

44
 Figure 9.8 Rack & Pinion Gear Figure 9.9 Worm Gear

2. HELICAL GEAR
Helical gear is just like spur gear but with its teeth at and angle with the axis of rotation of the
gear body. It can transmit motion from one shaft that is not parallel to it. Helical gear
operates more quietly and smoothly than spur gears. This is due to the fact that teeth of
helical gears slide one across the other rather than hitting each other as in spur gear. However
in helical gear, the friction, heats generated and wear is high because of the sliding action of
one tooth on another. Another disadvantage is it exerts end thrust, which must be absorbed by
thrust bearing.
3. BEVEL GEAR
Bevel gear is one in which teeth are cut so that they radiate from the apex of a cone and lie on
the conical surface. A set of two bevel gears is used to transmit power from one shaft to
another shaft, which is not parallel to first one. Bevel gears are available with straight, helical
and spiral teeth. Bevel gears are more expensive to cut than spur gear.
4. HERRING BONE GEAR
A right and left hand helical gear side by side from herring bone gear originally, a herring
bone gear consisted of two helical gear one right hand and other left hand but today most
herring bone gear are produced as a single unit on special machine, which cut the teeth in two

45
direction at one time. Herringbone gear style neutralizes end thrust and makes strong, quit
gear. Cutting herring bone gear is slower and more difficult so they are most frequently used
in the larger size, especially for heavy machinery. Herringbone gear is some times called a
double helical gear.
5. RACK AND PINION GEAR:
Rack gear is straight piece of and has no curvature; it represents gear of infinite radius teeth
are cut on this flat straight piece. Rack gear when meshed with a pinion used to changed
rotary motion to reciprocating motion or the reverse. Rack and pinion arrangement is use in
feeding mechanism and for reciprocating drives.
6. WORM GEAR
In worm gears centerlines of shafts do not meet. In worm gear one element is screw and other
is worm gear with enveloping teeth. Teeth on worm gear are helical and conform to helix
angle of tooth on the worm. The helical tooth on the worm is the form of thread, similar to
acme thread. Worms may have single, double or triple thread. Worm gear is used for large
speed reduction.

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

46
 EXPERIMENT NO:- 10

Demonstrate Facing, Turning, and Taper Turning Operation on Given

Component by Using Lathe Machine

Introduction
The main function of a lathe is to remove metal from a piece of work to give it the
required shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on
the machine and then turning it against a cutting tool which will remove metal from the
work in the form of chips.

Fig: Lathe Machine

1. Speed lathe 5. Tool room lathe

2. Engine lathe 6. Special purpose lathe

3. Bench lathe 7. NC and CNC lathe

4. Production lathe (Automatic lathe, capstan and turret lathe)

Lathe Operations
With suitable attachments and modifications a lathe can be made to perform any
machining operation done on a number of general purpose machines. Operations
commonly performed on a lathe include turning, facing, form turning, grooving, and

47
drilling, boring, knurling, taper turning and thread cutting.

CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

48
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 11

Demonstrate metal joining process using welding machine

INTRODUCTION:

A butt weld is one of the simplest and versatile types of weld joint designs. The joint is
formed simply by placing two pieces of metal end-to-end and then welding along the join.
Importantly, in a butt joint, the surfaces of the work pieces being joined are on the same plane
and weld metal remains within the planes of the surfaces.

Work Material: Two mild steel pieces of 75X50X6 mm.

Consumable item: Welding rod (3.15mm)

Tools and Equipment’s used: Arc welding machine, Mild steel electrodes, Electrode holder,
Ground clamp, flat nose Tong, Face shield, Apron, Hand gloves, Metallic work Table, Bench
vice, Rough flat file, Try square, Steel rule, Wire brush, Ball peen hammer, Chipping
hammer, Chisel and Grinding machine.

List of Operations: Marking, Cutting. Filing, Tack welding, Full welding, Chipping

Procedure

1. Collect the tools and equipment’s.

2. Study the given drawing before welding.

3. Prepare the two work piece by power hacksaw cutting into required dimensions.

4. File the two pieces by using rough file and make it V shape

5. Select the size of the electrode suitable to the thickness and type of welding.

6. Wear safety equipment’s for welding.

7. Assemble the pieces to be welded on the welding table.

8. Fix the earth clamp to the base metal

9. Select the required voltage and current in the welding machine.

10. Switch on the welding machine.

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11. Grip the electrode on the electrode holder and check the welding arc by welding on a
waste piece.

12. Make the tack welds at interval on the joints.

Figure 11.1 Butt weld diagram

13. Check the alignment of the pieces after the tack weld.

14. Make the complete welding from one end to another.

15. Remove the slag using the chipping hammer

16. Inspect the weld for finding the defects.

17. Switch off the machine. Result The welded single V‐butt joint is obtained.

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 Figure 11.2 Welding Component

CONCLUSION
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

51
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 12
Demonstrate various machining methods on hacksaw, and drilling
machines.

Most of the hacksaws are a type of handsaws with a C-shaped walking frame to hold the
blade under tension. Such type of hacksaws usually has a handle, mostly a pistol grip, having
pins for joining a narrow disposable blade. To accommodate blades of different sizes the
frames may also be adjustable. A screw or some other mechanism can be used to put the thin
blade under tension.

Parts of Hacksaw
Following are given the main part of a hacksaw:-
1) Hacksaw frame
2) Hacksaw blade
3) Adjustable wing nut
4) Adjustable screw
5) handle
6) stud

Types of Hacksaw Blades

The Following given are the main types of hacksaw blade:
● Course Grade Hacksaw Blade
● Medium Grade Hacksaw Blade
● Fine Grade Hacksaw Blade
● Superfine Grade Hacksaw Blade
● all Hard Blade

1. Course Grade Hacksaw Blade

This type of Hacksaw blade is practiced for cutting width of mild steel, copper, aluminum
and brass etc. these are having 14 to 18 teeth per inch.
2. Medium Grade Hacksaw Blade

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This type of Hacksaw blade is practiced for cutting all kinds of metals like cast iron, tool
steel, aluminum, brass, high carbon steel etc. From 20 to 24 TPI (teeth per inch) are cut in
this hacksaw blade.
3. Fine Grade Hacksaw Blade
This type of hacksaw blade is mainly used to cut the thinner pipes, sheets, tubes etc. These
blades are having 24 to 30 dents per inch.
4. Superfine Grade Hacksaw Blade
For cutting exceptional hard metals and light metal sheets, a very thin kind of hacksaw blade
is utilized. These blades are having 30 to 32 dents per inch
In all the hacksaw blades of different categories stated here, the teeth are made on one or both
sides. These blades are strengthened in two separate manners and this depends on their
characteristics.
5. All Hard Blade
The nature of these blades includes that they are hard and tempered only except the ends
where they have holes which make them slightly weak. These are utilized for cutting cast iron
or mould iron etc.
6. Flexible Blade
In blades of this nature, only the cutting teeth and nearby part is hardened and tempered. But
this method becomes flexible and it has a low risk of being brittle and get broken in the event
of a shock. These blades are utilized for cutting thin sheets, pipes, curves etc.
There are two types of SAW
Hand Saw & Power Saw

Hand Saw
Types of Hand Saws and Their Uses [with Pictures] :- Hand saws are referred to as
those instruments which are found to be powered by the force of the user. These are one
amongst those instruments which are being neither powered by electricity, battery nor by gas.
These saws are found to be in a wide variety of trades which are found to be accompanied
with various saws which are found being suitable for a wide range.
The main advantage of these type of saws is that they are found to be easily portable
which can take up very a little storage space and are also found to be more inexpensive as
compared to the power saws. These are found to be the ones which typically take longer in
order to finish a job as compared to a powered which is equivalent, so they may not be found
53
suitable for any smaller task.

Figure 12.1 Hand Saw

Power Saw Machine

The primary function of power saws is to cut lumber, metal, plastics, and ceramics to
length. These tools rely on motors or engines and a blade to cut and shape the material. AC-
powered saws have various power outputs but are restricted to a set distance from a power
source.

54
 Figure 12.2 Power Saw

Different Types of Power Saws

Miter Saw, Circular Saw, Stationary Saw, Compound Miter Saw, Chop Saw, Jig Saw,
Portable Saw, Table Saw, Chain Saw, Radial Arm Saw, Flooring Saw, Panel Saw, Oscillating
Saw, Rotary Saw, Scroll Saw, Pole Saw, Wet Tile Saw, Reciprocating Saw

Drilling Machine
Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was designed
to produce a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though
holes can be made by different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed
specifically to perform the operation of drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be done
easily at a low cost in a shorter period of time in a drilling machine.

Construction of a drilling machine

The basic parts of a drilling machine are a base, column, drill head and spindle. The base
made of cast iron may rest on a bench, pedestal or floor depending upon the design. Larger
and heavy duty machines are grounded on the floor. The column is mounted vertically upon
the base. It is accurately machined and the table can be moved up and down on it. The drill
spindle, an electric motor and the mechanism meant for driving the spindle at different speeds
are mounted on the top of the column. Power is transmitted from the electric motor to the

55
spindle through a flat belt or a ‘V’ belt.
Types of drilling machines
Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes according to the type of
operation, amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle speeds, method of spindle movement and the
required accuracy.
The different types of drilling machines are:
1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine

Drilling machine operations

Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar
operations are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can
be performed in a drilling machine are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Trepanning

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 Figure 12.3 Drilling Figure 12.4 Reaming

Figure 12.4 Boring Figure 12.5 Counter Boring

Figure 12.6 Counter Sinking Figure 12.7 Spot Facing

57
 Figure 12.8 Tapping Figure 12.9 Trepanning

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

58
 EXPERIMENT NO: - 13
List and explain common troubles and remedies of I.C. Engine.

Troubles
1. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________________

Remedies

1. _______________________________________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

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 EXPERIMENT NO: - 14
List and explain common troubles and remedies of Boiler.

Troubles
1. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________________

Remedies
1. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

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2. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

8. _______________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

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 EXPERIMENT NO: - 15
Register and complete free certificate online course of Energy Literacy
offered by Energy SWARAJ foundation in collaboration with IIT Bombay
and related discussion for possible ways to optimize energy usage.

Paste
Energy SWARAJ
Certificate Here

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Discussion for possible ways to optimize energy usage
1. .____________________________________________________________________
2. . ____________________________________________________________________
3. . ____________________________________________________________________
4. . ____________________________________________________________________
5. . ____________________________________________________________________
6. . ____________________________________________________________________
7. . ____________________________________________________________________
8. . ____________________________________________________________________
9. . ____________________________________________________________________
10. . ____________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Signature of Lab Faculty With Date : ___________________________________

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