Current electricity

Electric Current
➢ Is the flow of electric charges (electrons) from the negative side of
an electric field to the positive side.
➢ Is the rate of flow of charges. That is, amount of charges passing through a given
point per unit time.
➢ Mathematically, it is given as
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
➢ Current =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
➢ The unit of electric current (I) is the Ampere (A). Therefore, the SI unit of current is
Ampere (A).
➢ Using symbols
𝑄
➢I =
𝑡
➢ Where Q is amount of charge in Coulombs (C) passing through appoint in given
time (t) in seconds (s)
• From the variables used in the definition of electric
current, the unit of current can also be given as
coulombs/second (C/s). However, the SI unit of current is
Ampere (A). 1 ampere is equal to 1 coulombs/second, 1A
= 1C/s.
• From the formula, Q can also be made subject of the
formula as Q = It. This means that Q is the product of
current and time. Therefore, the unit of charge is the
ampere-second and 1 coulomb is equal to 1 ampere-
second. This means that a battery of 1 ampere-hour
supplies 1 amp of current in 1 hour.
Measurement of current
 Current is measured using an ammeter. It is connected in
series with other components in the circuit.
 The positive terminal of the ammeter is connected to the
positive terminal of the power supply and the negative to
the negative.
 It is made of the low resistance to allow current to pass
through.
 It is measured in amperes/amps(A)
 Ammeter is connected in series because it measures current
that passes through a component or wire.
 Potential difference
Aim: to investigate the need for potential difference
Materials: cell, connecting wire and ammeter
Procedures:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the fig. A complete circuit with
ammeter but not a cell
2. Take the ammeter reading.
3. Add a cell to the circuit and take the ammeter reading.
A A

Fig A Fig B
Discussions
 There was no current in fig A whereas there was
current in fig B.
 There is no cell in fig A whereas there is a cell in fig B
 This means that the cell is responsible for the current
flow in the circuit.
 A cell transforms chemical energy into electrical
energy. This implies that there is a buildup of electrons
at the negative terminal whereas there is deficiency of
electrons at the positive terminal of the cell.
• The differences in the charges at the terminals of the cell
causes the electrons to move from a rea of high
concentration to area of low concentration. This is
potential difference across the two terminals. Hence the
ammeter gives a reading in fig B.

In general, the flow of charge is established by the potential

difference between the two terminals of the cell. The
common name for potential difference is voltage. Voltage
therefore is the driving force of electrons in a circuit.

• Potential difference is measured in volts using a voltmeter.

Potential energy and energy transfer
 As electrons flow in a circuit, they carry wit them electrical energy.
This electrical energy is converted into different forms of energy by
the devices in the circuit. Thus, the electrical energy is said to do
work. Voltage causes movement of electrons that carry electrical
energy which is used to by the devices to do work.
 This means that there is a relationship between voltage, electrical
energy and work done.
 A potential difference of 1 volts exists between two points if 1J of
energy is used to move 1 coulomb of charge between two points.
 Mathematically;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
voltage = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Using symbols
𝑊
V=
𝑄
From the above formula, potential difference can also be
defined as the work done per unit charge. Work done is
measured in joules and charge is measured in coulombs
therefore voltage can also be given as joules/coulomb.
However, the Si unit of voltage is volts (V).
Therefore, 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
Electromotive force (emf)
 It is the voltage of the cell that is not part of the circuit.
Electromotive force and potential difference
Aim: to compare voltage of the cell that is part of the circuit and
voltage of the cell that is not part of the circuit
Materials: voltmeter, connecting wires, bulb, cell and switch.
Procedures:
1. Connect a circuit as in the fig below
2. With the switch open, ,measure the
Voltage across the cell and record it.
V
3. Close the switch and take note of the voltmeter
reading
Discussions
 The reading of the voltmeter is high when the switch
is open and the reading is low when the switch is
closed.
 It can be concluded that a cell has maximum potential
difference when not part of the circuit. This maximum
potential difference of a cell is called electromotive
force.
Measuring potential difference and
electromotive force
 Voltage is measured using a voltmeter
 Voltmeter is connected across the component whose difference in
potential is to be determined
 The positive side of the voltmeter is connected to the positive
side of the power supply and the negative to the negative
 It is connected in a parallel circuit, across the component because
it measures voltage between two points.
 A voltmeter is made of high resistance hence connecting it in
series will prevent current flow.
Electrical resistance
 This is defined as the opposition to the flow of electrons.
Different materials have different conductivities when they are connected in
the circuit.
For example:
1. In a copper wire current is high because electrons pass easily. This shows
that a copper wire is a good conductor. Therefore, copper has low
resistance.
2. In a nichrome wire of a similar size as the copper wire gives low current
because electrons pass with difficulties. This shows that a nichrome wire is
not a good conductor. Therefore, nichrome wire has high resistance.
Electrical resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω). Therefore, the SI
unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
If the electric current through a conductor is I when the pd
across it is V, its electrical resistance can be calculated by the
equation:
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
Electrical resistance =
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑽
R=
𝑰
Worked example
The potential difference across a nichrome wire is 10 V. If the
current flowing through the wire is 2 A, calculate the electrical
resistance of a nichrome wire.
Factors that affect electrical resistance
There are four major factors that affect resistance of a wire.
These factors are:
1. Length of a wire
2. Temperature
3. Cross-sectional area
4. Nature of the material
To vary one factor, the other three factors must be kept
constant.
Length of the wire
Aim: To investigate the effect of length of a wire on its resistance.
Materials: Nichrome wire of length 100 cm, connecting wires, 2 cells,
crocodile clips, ammeter, metre ruler and voltmeter.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown
2. Complete the circuit by connecting a 100cm nichrome wire across the gap AB.
3. Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Record your results in the table
4. Repeat the experiment with other lengths, e.g. 80 cm, 60 cm, 40 cm and 20 cm.
In each case
record the voltmeter and ammeter readings in the table.
5. Complete the values of resistance.

Length of the Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

wire
100
80
60
40
20
Results
Resistance decreases as the length of the wire decreases from 100 cm going
downwards.
Explanation
As the length of the wire decreases, there are few collisions that take place
between flowing electrons and stationary positive ions. In other words, there
is reduction in opposition to the flow of electrons because there are few
stationary positive ions that can cause resistance.
In general,
Shorter wire → lower resistance
Longer wire → higher resistance.
Conclusion
Therefore, the resistance of the wire varies directly with the length of the
wire.
Rαl
Possible graphs from the experiment
Thickness or cross-sectional area
Aim: To investigate the effect of thickness of the wire on its resistance.
Materials :4 Nichrome wires of the same length and material but with
different cross-sections or diameters, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting
wires, crocodile clips and 2 cells.
Procedures:
1. Set up the experiment as shown in figure
2. Complete the gap AB with the smallest wire.
3. Record the voltage and ammeter readings.
4. Repeat the experiment with nichrome wire of different thickness. In
each case record, the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
Calculate the resistance of a nichrome wire of each thickness by using the
formula: R = V/I
Nichrome wire Voltage(V) Current (A) Resistance(Ω)
1
2
3
4
Results
Resistance of the wires decreases as the thickness increases.
Explanation/conclusion
As the thickness of the wire increases, electrons are able to flow with
less resistance. Therefore, resistance of the wire varies inversely with
its cross-section or thickness.
Possible graphs
Temperature
Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature of the wire on its resistance.
Materials: Nichrome wire of length 10 cm, connecting wires, ammeter,
voltmeter, 2 cells and crocodile clips.
Procedures:
1. Set up an experiment as shown in the figure below
2. Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings in the circuit. Calculate the resistance
of nichrome wire(R=V/I)
3. Light a Bunsen burner and place it at a distance of 15 cm from nichrome wire.
4. Record the new voltmeter and ammeter readings, and then calculate the new
resistance of the nichrome wire.
5. Repeat the experiment with the Bunsen burner being at distances, 10cm and 5cm.
Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings then calculate the resistance in each
case.
Distance from
Voltage(V) Ammeter(A) Resistance(Ω)
the burner(cm)
No burner
15
10
5
Results
The resistance of the wire increases as the distance of the Bunsen burner from the
nichrome wire decreases.
Explanation
As the distance between the burner and the wire decreases, the temperature of the
wire increases. An increase in the temperature of the wire increases the kinetic
energy of the stationary positive ions in the wire. These particles increase their
vibrations and cause more collisions with the flowing electrons. Hence increases
resistance.
In general:
Low temperature → low resistance
High temperature → high resistance.
Conclusion
Therefore, resistance of the wire varies directly with temperature.
RαT
Possible graphs
Nature of the material
Aim: To investigate the effect of the nature of the material on the resistance of the
wire.
Materials: Copper wire and nichrome wire of the same thickness and length, ammeter,
voltmeter, 2 cells and crocodile clips.
Procedures:
1. Set up an experiment as shown
2. Complete the gap with copper wire.
3. Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
4. Then calculate the resistance (R=V/I).
5. Repeat the experiment with nichrome wire, and then record
the voltmeter and ammeter readings to calculate the resistance.
Material Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

Copper wire

Nichrome wire
Results
Copper wire gives high ammeter reading while nichrome wire gives low
current reading.
Explanation
Copper wire gives high current reading because it has low resistance.
Nichrome wire gives low current because it has high resistance. This
shows that copper wire is made up of copper material which has low
resistance and nichrome wire is made up of nichrome material which has
high resistance.
Conclusion
Therefore, different wires are made up of different materials that have
different resistances
 Ohm’s law
 Itstates that current flowing in wire is directly
proportional to the potential difference supplied,
keeping temperature and all other variables constant.

Mathematically, ohm’s law can be represented as follows

Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
V = IR
Verifying Ohm’s law
Aim: To verify Ohm’s law
Materials: Cells, switch, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor (a nichrome wire)
and connecting wires.
Procedures:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure below
2. Close the switch and take the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
3. Repeat the experiment with 2, 3 and 4 cells. Take the voltmeter and
ammeter readings for each number of cells in the table below
Resistance (Ω)
Number of Voltmeter Ammeter
Voltage
cells reading (V) reading (A)
Current
1
2
3
4
4. Calculate the resistance for each number of cells.
7. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading (V) against the current
reading (A).
8. Describe the shape of the graph in question 4.

Discussions
Plotting a graph of voltage against current produces a straight
line. This means that, as the voltage increases, current also
increases. The gradient of that straight line graph is the
resistance of that material.
Ohmic and Non-ohmic materials
Ohmic materials – Materials that obeys ohm’s laws and hence have a
constant resistance over a wide range of voltages.
Non-ohmic materials – Materials that do not obey ohm’s law and hence
the resistance changes over wide range of voltages.
Ohmic materials Non-ohmic materials
Measuring resistance using an ohmmeter
Resistors – These are electronic devices that are made specifically to give
certain amount of resistance. It is used to reduce the amount of current
flowing in the circuit. The symbol for a resistor is shown below:

Using Ohm’s law, voltmeter is connected across a resistor and an ammeter

in series in the circuit. The resistance of a resistor is found by dividing the
voltmeter reading by the ammeter reading.
voltmetre reading
Resistance =
ammmeter reading
V
R=
I
The resistance of a resistor can also be found by using
an ohmmeter. An ohmmeter is an instrument which is
used to measure resistance of a resistor.

Using an ohmmeter, connect one terminal of an

ohmmeter to one side of a resistor and the other
terminal of an ohmmeter to the other side of a resistor.
Take the reading of resistance on an ohmmeter
Forms of resistors
Resistors are made in variety of forms:
1. Fixed resistors
These are used to reduce current in simple circuit. In complicated
circuit, they may work as potential dividers, providing required
levels of potential difference and current to different components
.
1. Variable resistors
These are used for varying current in a circuit. Hence can be used
to control brightness of bulbs, and as volume control knobs in hi-fi
systems.
Indicating/Finding resistance of resistors
There are two ways by which the resistance of a resistor is indicated, namely;
1. Standard notation
2. Resistor colour codes
1. Resistor colour codes
 This makes use of colored bands drawn around the resistor. The 10 digits of
the denary system of counting are assigned a colour in denoting resistance.
 The resistor may have three or four bands drawn around it.
 The first and second band gives the first and second digit of the resistance
value, respectively. The third band gives the multiplier of the resistance value,
giving number zeroes to be added after the second value and fourth band
gives the tolerance of the resistor.
Colour codes
Colors and assigned digits
Tolerance for resistor color code
2. Resistor standard notation
 This makes use of numbers and letters that are printed on the
resistors.
 Some selected letters are given a meaning and used in combination
with digits to give the resistance value. Table below shows letters
and their meaning
Even though the fixed resistors have a fixed resistance value, there might be some
variations when used in a circuit.
Thus an allowance in change of resistance value for a fixed resistor is provided as a
percentage
That allowance in variation of a resistance value is called tolerance or tolerance is also
defined as the extent to which the actual value of the resistance may vary.
The table below shows letters representing different tolerance
 Internal resistance of a cell
 This is defined as the resistance of the cell to the current it causes.
 It is also defined as the electrostatic field inside the cell.
Current in a closed circuit is maintained by the electromotive (emf)
sources such as cells. This emf sources increase the potential energy
of the circulating charges. They continually give a push for the
electrons to move around.
However, the cells have got terminals with different type of charges.
As a result, there is internal attraction between the different charges
within the cell and the emf acts as a charge pump that force
electrons to move to a direction opposite to the electrostatic field
within the cell.
Mathematically
lost in voltage
Internal resistance (r) =
current
v
r=
I
Lost in voltage, v = Ir (make v subject of the formula)
As the charge moves from the negative terminal to
positive terminal of the battery, the potential of the
charge is increased by ε. As the charge moves through the
internal resistance (r), its potential is decreased by the
amount Ir.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the battery becomes;
∆V = ε – Ir or ε = ∆V + Ir........................................eq1
From the expression above ε is equal to ∆V (terminal voltage)
when current (I) flowing is zero.
But ∆V is also equal to IR (∆V = IR), combining this with eq1
it becomes;
ε = IR + Ir or ε = I(R + r) ........................................eq2
Make I subject of the formula eq2 becomes;
ε
I= ....................................................................eq3
(𝑅+𝑟)
Eq3 shows that current depend both on internal resistance (r)
and external resistance (R).
Effective resistance
A. Series
 Voltage supplied in series circuit is shared amongst the components while
current is not. Therefore, total voltage in series across each component will
be:
 VT = V1 + V2 + V3 .....Vn
 But V = IR
 IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 .........IRn
 Divide both sides by I the equation becomes;
 RT = R1 + R2 + R3 .......Rn
 Therefore, effective resistance of resistors in series is the algebraic sum of
individual resistances and it is always greater than any individual resistance
 B. Parallel
 Current in parallel circuit is shared amongst the difference branches
unlike voltage. Therefore, in a parallel circuit current will be:
 IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ............In
V
 But I =
R
V V V V V
 = + + ..............
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
 Factor out V on the right hand side
V 1 1 1 1
 =V ( + + .............. )
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
 Dividing by V both sides
1 1 1 1 1
 = + + ..............
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
Electric Power
 This is defined as the rate of doing work
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑤)
power (p) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
 It is also defined as the rate at which energy is being used or transformed
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
power (p) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
In electrical circuits, power is provided by the cells or battery
Using symbols
𝑤 𝐸
p= or p =
𝑡 𝑡
From the formula, the unit of power is joules/second. However, the SI unit
of power watt.
1 watt = 1 joule/second
Power equations
 Recall
workdone (w)
voltage (v)= , make w subject of the formula
charge(Q)
Work done (w) =voltage(v) x charge(Q)
 W = VQ
charge(Q)
But current(I) = , make charge Q subject of the formula
time (t)
Charge Q = current (I) x time (t)
 Q = It, therefore, substitute It for Q
work (w)
 W = VIt, and p = , therefore, substitute VIt for w
time (t)
VIt
 p= , cancel the common factor t, the equation becomes;
t
 P = VI..........................................................eq1
 Therefore power can be considered as the product of voltage supplied to an appliance
and the current passing through that appliance.
P = VI
But V = IR, therefore, substituting IR for V the equation becomes
P = (IR) x I
 P= I2R........................................................eq2
V V
But I = , therefore, substituting for I the equation becomes
R R
V 2
P=( ) xR
R
V2
P = 2 x R, R cancels with R, the equation becomes
R
V2
P= .....................................................eq3
R
Power rating of electrical
appliances
 Power rating – This is the indication of the capacity to which
the appliance can function to its best.
 The voltage supply to which the appliance must be
connected to is also indicated, for example a bulb may be
marked 60W 240V, Implying that the bulb functions better
when connected to 2450V power supply.

Electrical energy
 The ability of electric charges to do work when they flow
through an appliance
 Recall
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
power (p) = , make energy subject of the formula
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛(𝑡)
Energy = power x time
Where energy is measured in joules. From the formula above,
energy can also be measured in Watt-seconds. The SI unit of
electrical energy is derived from the watt-second unit. Electrical
energy is measured in kilowatt-hours (kW-h).
1 kW-h = 1000W x 60 x 60s
= 1000W x 3600s
= 3, 600, 000Ws
= 3, 600, 000j
Electrical energy equations
Energy = power x time
E=Pxt
V2
But P = VI, P = I2R, and P = , therefore, energy will
R
have the following equations
 E = P x t.............................i
 E = VIt ................................ii
 E = I2Rt ..............................iii
V2t
E = ................................iv
R
Cost of electricity
 Electricity is supplied by the local Electricity Board. For example, in
Malawi electricity is supplied by the Electricity Supply Corporation of
Malawi Ltd (ESCOM).
 The Electricity board charges electricity in form of electrical energy
used by appliances. The electrical energy is measured in kilowatt –
hours by the electric energy meter.
 1 kilowatt – hour is sold as 1 unit of electrical energy.
 A kilowatt hour or unit of electricity is the electrical energy supplied in
1 hour to an appliance whose power is 1kw.
 Total cost of electricity = kilowatt – hours x cost per kilowatt – hour
= Electrical energies x cost per electrical energy
= Units x cost per unit
Worked examples
1. An electrical appliance is rated at 200 W. If electrical energy costs
K28.00 per kWh, what is the cost of using this heater for 8 hours at its
maximum power?

Solution
P = 200 W = 0.2 kW, t = 8hrs, and 1 kWh = K28.00
Electrical energy = p x t = 0.2 kW x 8 h = 1.6 kWh
Total cost of electricity = 1.6 kWh x K28.00
Total cost of electricity = K44.80
1 kW-h of electrical energy costs k25. Workout the cost of using three 100w bulbs
for 8 hours, two 1.5kw heater for 150 minutes and a 5kw hotplate for 30 minutes.
The power of the heating element
 The current has the heating effect when it flows
through a resistive material e.g. a coil of an electric
heater or cooker. The power of the heating element
can be found in the following formulas:
 P = VI……………(i)
V2
P = ……………..(ii)
R
P = I2R…………..(iii)
Energy transfer
 The electrical energy in heating elements is released as heat energy.
Therefore, heat energy lost from a heating element , e.g. electric
heater is gained by the surrounding material. This shows that
electric current has a heating effect. The heating effect is noticed
by an increase in temperature.
 If there is no energy loss then,
Electrical energy = Heat energy
Electrical energy = power x time
E=pxt
Heat energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in
temperature
HE = m x c x ∆T
The equations can be related as follows:
P x t = m x c x ∆T………………...(i)
IVt = m x c x ∆T ………………(ii)
I Rt = m x c x ∆T ……………….(iii)
2

V2t
= m x c x ∆T ……………….(iv)
R
Worked example
The immersion heater is used to heat water in a
bath. If a heater rated at 3.6kW is connected to
240V main supply, calculate:
a. The resistance of the heating element.
b. The time taken for 2 kg of water in a bath to
raise its temperature from 200C to 250C. (SHC of
water is 4200J/kg0C).