"अनुभवेन िव ानं , योगेण प रपु ते।

संशोधनं परं ानं , योगिस रे व च॥"

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

SET-I
(B.E. FIRST YEAR STUDENTS – Common for all Branches)

Faculty of Physics
Department of Science & Humanities
L. D. College of Engineering,
Navrangpura, Ahmedabad – 380015
 INDEX

Sr. No. Objective of an Experiment

1 To measure the distance between two points using a laser distance

meter.

2 Determination of unknown mass using Hooke’s law.

3 To measure the distance between two points using an Ultrasonic

distance meter and study principle of Ultrasonic waves.

4 Determination of wavelength of LASER using diffraction grating.

L.D. College of Engineering
Physics Lab

Laser Distance Meter

तमसो मा ोितगमय।
"Lead me from darkness to light."
"Tamaso mā jyotir gamaya."
 Laboratory Manual: Laser Distance Meter
Aim:
To measure the distance between two points using a laser distance meter and to understand
the working principle of a laser and its applications in distance measurement.

Apparatus:
1. Laser distance meter
2. Measuring tape (for manual measurement comparison)
3. A flat surface or wall as a target
4. Tripod or stand (optional, for stability)
5. Notebook and pen

Laser:
Word Laser is an acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser
is a device that generates light in the form of a laser beam which is different from an ordinary
light beam due to its below mentioned properties.

Properties of a Laser:
1. Directional: Laser beams travel in a highly collimated, narrow path.
2. Divergence:
3. Monochromatic: Laser light consists of a single wavelength (or color) compared to regular
light, which has multiple wavelengths.
4. Coherent: The emitted light waves are in phase both in time and space.
5. Brightness:
6. High Intensity: Due to coherence and collimation, the energy is concentrated in a small
area, making it a highly intense and powerful beam.

Principle of Laser:
A laser basically works on below mentioned principles.
1. Stimulated or Induced Absorption: If an atom is initially in a lower energy state, it can rise
to a higher energy state by absorbing a Photon. This process is known as stimulated
absorption or induced absorption.
2. Spontaneous Emission: When an electron transit from an excited state to a lower energy
level, it emits a photon randomly.
3. Stimulated Emission: When a photon interacts with an excited electron, it causes the
electron to emit another photon that is in the same phase and direction as the first,
leading to amplification of light.
Basic Types of Laser:
Types of LASER

Solid-State Liquid Semiconductor

Gas Laser Fiber Laser
Laser (Dye) Laser (Diode) Laser

Working Principle of a Laser Distance Meter:

A laser distance meter measures distance by emitting a laser beam toward a target and
calculating the time taken for the
reflected beam to return to the sensor
(time of flight). The speed of light is
known, so the distance can be calculated
using the formula:

𝑑 = (𝑐 × 𝑡) / 2
Where, d = distance to the target, c =
speed of light (~3 × 108 m/s), t = time
taken for the laser to travel to the
target and back.

Procedure:
1. Place the laser distance meter on a stable surface or a tripod.
2. Aim the laser at a flat surface or wall at a known distance.
3. Record the distance measured by the laser distance meter.
4. Measure the same distance manually using a measuring tape.
5. Repeat the measurement at various distances and record the values.
6. Compare the laser meter values with the manually measured values and calculate any
discrepancies or percentage errors.

Observation:
Range and dimensions observed: __________

Observation Table:

Distance (measured Distance (measured Difference Percentage

Sr. No.
by Laser Meter) (m) by Tape) (m) (m) Error

5 (Include further rows if needed as per the readings) …

Calculations:
Percentage Error:
Percentage Error = (Difference in measurement / Distance by tape) × 100

Conclusion:
Minimum distance measured by given laser distance meter: _________

The laser distance meter provides an accurate and efficient way to measure distances.
The experiment confirms the accuracy of the laser meter within an acceptable range of
error.

Q&A:
1. What is full form of laser?
2. Mention any five properties of laser.
3. State any five differences between Ordinary light and laser light.
4. What do you mean by stimulated emission?
5. List out any five applications of laser associated with the application of your branch.
 L.D. College of Engineering
Physics Lab

Hooke’s Law
यथा धे नुः सहे ा, यथा वृ ः फला तः । तथा साधुभरत े , सहेते पीडनं महत्॥

"Yathā dhenuḥ sahetsnigdhā, yathā vṛkṣaḥ phalānvitaḥ;

Tathā sādhuḥ bharataśreṣṭha, sahete pīḍanaṃ mahat."

"Just as a cow endures calmly, just as a tree bears fruits even when burdened, so too does a wise
person (Sādhu) endure great stress and strain."
 Laboratory Manual: Hooke’s Law
Aim and Objective:
(1) Verify Hooke’s Law.
(2) To determine the spring constant of a given spring by a static method.
(3) To determine the value of given unknown masses.

Equipment:
Stand, pendulum clamp, ruler stick, slotted mass set, spring

Basic Theory:
Hooke's Law describes the relationship between the force applied to an elastic object
(like a spring) and the resulting deformation of that object. It is named after the 17th-
century British scientist Robert Hooke, who first formulated the law. Robert Hooke
proposed that the stretch of a spring is proportional to the force applied to the spring.
Hooke's Law is the basis for the concept of Young's modulus, which is a measure for
the stiffness of a material. It describes how much a material will deform under a given
stress. It is fundamental in understanding elastic materials and is widely used in
engineering, physics, and various applications to predict how materials and structures
will respond to forces. As, stress ∝ strain,

∝ χ ; Where A = 1 m2
Hence,
F = −k (∆x)
Here, 𝐹 is force applied to the object, 𝑘 is a spring constant or stiffness of the material,
and 𝛥𝑥 is displacement or deformation of the object from its original position.

Fig:1 Mass and Spring Set-up

The negative sign indicates the spring force is a restoring force; in other words, the
spring always tries to oppose any forces applied.
Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig. 1 with the spring, mass and meter stick.
2. The pendulum clamp and your ruler (or meter stick) should be positioned in such a
way that the tip of the pointer shows the scale reading easily but should not touch the
scale.
3. Take note of the position of the pointer's tip on the scale. Observe the equilibrium
position (no force added) of the spring and note this in the observation table against
zero load.
4. Gently hang a suitable mass of 50 g at a slotted weight of a hanger. The pointer tip
moves down.
5. Wait till the tip comes to rest and note down the reading then after.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for other given masses with the same value of increament.
7. Now unload the weights one by one and repeat the whole procedure until the only
hanger is left.
8. Repeat the procedure for given unknown masses.
9. Record all observations in below given format.

Observation Table:
Observation:
Least count of a vertical scale = ______ (unit)

Elongation Spring
Elongation of Average
of spring Elongati Spring
Mass spring while ∆𝑦 + ∆𝑧
Mass Force while ∆𝑥 = on Constant
Sr. unloading 2
F=mg loading
No. M mass 𝑘=∆
M (N) mass ∆𝑥
(kg) Δz N/m
(g) Δy (cm)
(cm) (m)
(cm)

1. 0 0 0

2.

3.

4.

5. (Include further rows if needed as per the readings) …

Δy1= ___ Δz1= ___ Δx1= ___ Δx1= ___

6. M1 ---- ---- -

Δy2 = ___ Δz2 = ___ Δx2 = ___ Δx2 = ___

7. M2 ---- ---- -

Δy3 = ___ Δz3 = ___ Δx3 = ___ Δx3 = ___

8. M3 ---- ---- -
Calculation: (A and B)
(A) From observation Table

I. Average Spring constant (𝑘) = __________

II. Find unknown mass values using the spring constant of known masses.
M1 = _____ (unit)
M2 = _____ (unit)
M3 = _____ (unit)

Graph:
1. Plot a graph of the Elongation of spring (𝛥𝑥) on the vertical axis and load (𝐹) on the
Horizontal axis.
2. Using 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, write an equation for a line. Make sure to include appropriate
variables, numbers and units in the equation.
3. The inverse of the slope of the elongation vs. Force graph is known as the spring
constant or rate.
4. To find unknown masses, using 𝛥𝑥 , 𝛥𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛥𝑥 values, draw a perpendicular line
on a slope line and find their corresponding F1, F2 and F3 which can be used to find
unknown masses M1, M2 and M3.

Nature of Graph:
Calculation:
(B) From Graph

I. Equation for a line = ________

II. Slope of a graph = = _______
III. Spring constant (𝑘) = = __________
IV. Unknown mass values,
M1 = _____ (unit)
M2 = _____(unit)
M3 = _____(unit)

Conclusion:
1. Nature of graph and observation has shown __________ relationship between the
force applied to a spring and the amount of stretch on a spring which verifies
______________

2. The spring constant of a given spring is,

Spring Constant From Calculation From Graph

3. Unknown mass values are found as,

From Calculation From Graph

Mass (M1)
Mass (M2)
Mass (M3)

Assignment:
1. What is Hooke's law?
2. What do you mean by spring Constant?
3. What is Young’s modulus?
4. With the same applied force, which stretches more - a higher 𝑘 spring or a lower 𝑘
spring?
5. Give any two examples of “non Hookean materials”.
6. How is Hooke's Law applied in the design and functioning of a spring balance?
7. List out applications of Hooke’s law.
 L.D. College of Engineering
Physics Lab

Ultrasonic Distance Meter

नादः र मूलं तु, जगत् सृ ेरिप थतः ।

"Nādaḥ svarasya mūlaṃ tu, jagat sṛṣṭerapi sthitaḥ." "Sound (Nāda) is the root of all vibration and is
at the foundation of the creation of the universe."
 Laboratory Manual: Ultrasonic Distance meter

Aim and Objective:

To measure the distance between any two points using an ultrasonic distance meter.

Apparatus:
- Ultrasonic distance meter
- Measuring tape (for verification)
- Target objects (e.g., wall or board)
- Lab notebook
- Pen/Pencil

Diagram:
The following diagram illustrates the setup for the ultrasonic distance measurement:

Theory:
Ultrasonic waves:
Ultrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies above the range of human hearing (typically
above 20 kHz).
Properties of Ultrasonic waves:
Ultrasonic waves have frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to several GHz.
Ultrasonic waves have shorter wavelengths compared to audible sound waves.
Ultrasonic waves can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted, similar to light waves.
Ultrasonic waves experience attenuation, meaning their intensity decreases as they travel through a
medium.

Principle of Ultrasonic Distance meter:

The principle of an ultrasonic distance meter is based on the time-of-flight measurement of sound
waves. An ultrasonic distance meter is a device that uses high-frequency sound waves to measure the
distance between the meter and an object. The principle behind the ultrasonic distance meter is based
on the time-of-flight method, where the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse to travel to an object and
return (echo) is measured and used to calculate distance. This time is referred to as the "time of
flight." The distance to the object is calculated using the formula:

Distance =
The division by 2 is necessary because the time measured includes the trip to the object and
back. The calculated distance is then displayed on the device's screen, providing a quick and accurate
measurement. The speed of sound depends on temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. In
general, the speed increases with higher temperatures and humidity. The accuracy of the
measurement depends on the precision of the time measurement and the quality of the transmitter
and receiver. Ultrasonic distance meters have a limited range, typically up to several meters, as the
intensity of ultrasonic waves diminishes with distance. The accuracy can also be affected by the
surface properties of the object. Hard, smooth surfaces reflect ultrasonic waves better than soft or
irregular surfaces, which may scatter the waves. The ultrasonic distance meter is a reliable, low-cost,
and non-contact method of measuring distances, widely applied in various fields.

Procedure
1. Set up the ultrasonic distance meter and ensure it is powered on.
2. Place the target object at a known position.
3. Point the ultrasonic distance meter towards the target object.
4. Press the measurement button on the ultrasonic distance meter to obtain the distance reading.
5. Record the distance displayed on the meter in your lab notebook.
6. Repeat the measurement for different distances and record the readings.
7. Use the measuring tape to manually measure the distance between the points for verification.
8. Compare the ultrasonic readings with the manual measurements to check for accuracy.

Observation
Range and Dimension observed: ___________

Observation Table
Sr.
Distance (Ultrasonic Meter) Distance (Manual Measurement) Error (%)
No.
1

Calculation:
Calculate the percentage error between the ultrasonic distance and the manual measurement using
the formula:
Error (%) = |(Ultrasonic Distance - Manual Measurement) / Manual Measurement| x 100
Conclusion:
1. Minimum distance measured by given ultrasonic distance meter:___________
2. It has been observed that as distance increases Error (%) ___________

Q&A:
1. List out any five applications of Ultrasonic waves.
2. Explain the principle of operation of the ultrasonic distance meter.
3. List the factors that can affect the accuracy of the ultrasonic distance meter.
4. What changes would you expect if the experiment were performed in a medium
other than air, such as water?
5. What are the applications of Ultrasonic distance meter?
 L.D. College of Engineering
Physics Lab

Determine the wavelength of a laser

using a diffraction grating
एकेन मागण यथाऽकिब ं, िव दी ं दहनं करोितः । तथा नरे षु थतमेकमेव, बु नराणां बलं
करोितः ॥

"Ekena mārgeṇa yathā'rkabimbaṃ, praviśya dīptaṃ dahanaṃ karotiḥ;

Tathā nareṣu sthitamekameva, buddhirnarāṇāṃ prabalaṃ karotiḥ."

"Just as the sun's rays, when focused in one direction, generate intense heat and light, similarly, the
mind's focused intellect gives strength and power to a person."
 Laboratory Manual: Ultrasonic Distance meter

Aim:

To determine the wavelength of a given laser source by employing a diffraction grating.

Apparatus:

1. Laser source
2. Diffraction grating (with known grating spacing, d)
3. Optical bench
4. Graph paper
5. Ruler or measuring tape
6. Mounting stands and clamps

Diagram:

Fig.1: Illustration of LASER diffraction pattern

Theory:
The wavelength of the laser light is determined by measuring the angle of the diffraction maxima and
using the diffraction formula. By knowing the grating spacing, d and the angle θm for various orders
m, the wavelength λ of the laser light can be calculated.

A diffraction grating used here is an optical component with a large number of equally spaced lines or
grooves etched onto its surface. These lines act as multiple slits through which light passes and
diffracts. The spacing between adjacent lines is called the grating spacing, d, and is a crucial parameter
in determining the diffraction pattern.

When monochromatic light (such as from a laser) strikes the grating, each slit acts as a secondary
source of light waves. These waves interfere with each other constructively and destructively,
depending on their path differences. Constructive interference occurs when the path difference
between waves from adjacent slits is an integer multiple of the wavelength, resulting in bright fringes
(maxima). Destructive interference occurs where the path difference is a half-integer multiple of the
wavelength, resulting in dark fringes (minima). The diffraction pattern produced, as shown in Fig. 1,
by a grating consists of a central bright fringe (known as the central maximum) and a series of equally
spaced bright fringes on either side of it. The spacing between these fringes depends on the
wavelength of the light, the grating spacing, and the angle at which the diffracted light is observed.
 Fig. 2 (a): Top view of Laser Grating Element Fig. 2 (b): Magnified view of Grating window

The positions of the bright fringes (maxima) can be calculated using the grating equation:

d Sinθm = mλ

Here, d is the grating spacing (distance between adjacent lines, shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b)), θm is the
angle at which the mth order maximum appears, m is the order of the maximum (an integer: 0, ±1,
±2,...), and λ is the wavelength of the light.

Procedure:

Place the laser source on the optical bench and align it so that its beam is perpendicular to
the diffraction grating. Position the diffraction grating between the laser and the observation
screen. Direct the laser beam to pass through the grating. Ensure the laser beam is well-
centred on the grating. Observe the diffraction pattern on the screen. Identify the central
maximum and several other bright maxima on either side. Measure the distance between the
central maximum and the mth order maximum. Record this distance for different orders m.
Record the grating spacing d (this is usually provided with the grating). For each order m,
measure and calculate the angle θm.

Observation:
(i) Distance between adjacent lines of grating, d = _____

(ii) Distance between Grating and screen is l = __________

Observation Table:

Sr. Distance Order Xm ϴm =tan-1 𝒍

𝑿𝒎 Sin ϴm λ λ (Å)
No. l (cm) (mth ) (cm) (degree) (degree) (nm)
L.H.S. R.H.S. Mean
Calculation:

Using the diffraction formula, calculate the wavelength for each order: d Sinθm = mλ

Calculate the wavelength λ for each order m. Average the calculated wavelengths to obtain
a final value.

Conclusion:

The obtained wavelength of the given laser source is _______________which is comparable

to the wavelength of ____________ Laser.