RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to JNTUV- Gurajada, Accredited by NBA &
Accredited by NAAC with A grade)

--------------------------------------------------
ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
Student Manual

I-B.Tech, I& II Semesters

AR-23 Regulation

Prepared by

Dr. G. Kiran Kumar Dr. A.S. Madhusudhanacharyulu

Dr. B. Suryanarayana Dr. N. Ramu
Dr. T. Manohar Naidu Mr. Y. Venkata Rao
Mrs. N. Adilakshmi Mr. Ch. Krishnamurthy
Mr. M. Surya Rao Ms. S. Sravya
Ms. P. Jyothirmayi Mr. K. Kiran Kumar
Ms. V. Anusha Ms. T. Jyothsna

Lab In-charges
Mr Y.Venkata Rao (Associate Professor)
Dr. T. Manohar Naidu (Assistant Professor)
Mrs. N. Adilakshmi (Assistant Professor)

Department of Physics
 RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUGV-Vizianagaram)
NBA and NAAC ‘A+’ grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri, Bheemili Mandal, Visakhapatnam – 531162, A.P.
Phone: 08922-248001 / 221122/9963981111, www.raghuenggcollege.com
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Course Details

Laboratory Name : Engineering Physics

Lab Code : 23PH1001 (CE, EEE, ME,ECE CSE CSM CSD CSC CSO),

Regulation : AR-23

Year : I B.Tech

Semester : I / II

Program : B. Tech

Periods/week : 2

Credits : 1

Faculty In-charge : Mr Y. Venkata Rao (Associate Professor)

Checked by Approved by

Dr.S.Prasad Rao (Professor) Head

IQAC Member Dept. of BS & H
Dept. of BS & H

2
 INDEX

S NO Description Page No
1 Department Vision, Mission, Profile and Salient Features 4
2 Course Description 6
3 General Instructions 12
4 University Syllabus 14
5 Measuring Instruments 15
6 Frequency of Electrically maintained tuning fork at longitudinal mode 23
of vibration by using Melde’s Experiment.

7 Determination of the radius of curvature of given Plano convex lens by 30

Newton’s ring method.

8 Determination of Rigidity modulus of given wire by using Torsional 36

pendulum.

9 Magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying circular coil by using 41
Stewart- Gee’s method.

10 . 46
Verification of Laws of stretched string by using Sonometer.

11 Determination temperature coefficient of Thermistor. 50

12 Determination the energy gap of given semiconductor material. 54

13 Determine the wavelength of the given source of light using a plane 57

transmission grating and spectrometer in the normal incidence position.

14 Estimation of Plank’s constant using Photo electric effect (Virtual). 62

15 Determination of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient of a given 67

Semiconductor using Hall effect (Virtual).

3
HOD’s message:
We have seen farther than others because we have stood on the shoulders of giants – Isaac
Newton referring to Galileo.
Physics provides the basic knowledge and understanding of the mechanism of all living and
no-living things. Our teaching philosophy incorporates two core beliefs: 1) effective communication
between the teacher and student is vital, and 2) learning in physics is an iterative process of theoretical
study and application. It is through these principles that we wish to reach our teaching goal which is to
provide an environment that allows students to take initiative in their education, and in which every
student, regardless of background, comes away with an understanding of physics concepts. We are
interested in teaching a broad range of Physics courses and have particular interest in topics related to
Mechanics, Physics of Light and Modern physics. Our experience has shown that careful and thorough
preparation is the most important effort we can make toward a successful class experience. This
involves the distillation of material from a broad set of sources into a well-organized lecture
emphasizing key concepts. The continuity in teaching a particular concept is also of vital importance.
We intend to bridge our teaching and research when appropriate in accordance with this approach. An
iterative approach to teaching cultivates these talents and develops the fundamental skills required for
understanding the concepts in physics. We hope and wish students attending our courses inculcate the
habits of understanding the concepts and applying them in their professional and personal carers. We
wish them a great success.

Salient features of the department of physics:

1. Highly experienced faculty with an average teaching experience of 10 years each.
2. Fully equipped general physics, optics laboratories to cater to the needs of B. Tech students
and to conduct mini projects.
3. Teaching courses viz., Engineering Physics, Applied Physics to first year B. Tech students as
well as taken up professional/optional electives in final year such as Nano Science and
Technology.
4. Facilities for basic research.
5. Published ~15 peer reviewed science and scopus indexed research articles ( SCI & SCOPUS) in
the last 3 years.

4
 RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
COURSE DESCRIPTIO N

Course Context and Overview:

The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate
phenomena in different areas of physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the
experiments with interest and attitude of learning laboratory experiments are conducted to reinforce
theory and to provide practical experience with physical optics
.
Course Prerequisites:
1. Intermediate I & II year physics practical.

Literature: Student Manual

Books Recommended:
Text Books:
1. Engineering physics lab manual by Dr. Y. Aparna &Dr. K. Venkateswara Rao

Reference Books:
1. Physics Practical manual, Lorven Publications.
2. Practical physics, G.L. Squires, Cambridge University press.
3. Great experiments in physics, M.H.Shamos, Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc., 1959.
4. Engineering physics lab manual by M. Sri Rama Rao, Daruku Prasad (Acme Learning).

5
Program Educational Objectives:

PEO No. Program Educational Objectives

To have the knowledge and technical skills required to be and to remain

PEO 1
productive.
To apply technical knowledge and skills as electronics and communication
PEO 2 engineers to provide effective solutions in industrial and governmental
organizations.
To achieve success with awareness of entrepreneurship skills and have the
PEO 3 ability for lifelong learning by pursuing professional development to meet the
emerging and evolving demands to have a successful career.

Programme Outcomes:

PO No. Program Outcomes

01 An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering.

An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
02
interpret data.
An ability to design a engineering system, component or process to meet
03
desired needs.
04 An ability to function on an multidisciplinary teams.
05 An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems.
06 An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility.
07 An ability to communicate effectively.
The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering
08
solutions in a global societal context.
09 A recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in lifelong learning.
10 Knowledge of contemporary issues.
An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools
11
necessary for engineering practice.
12 Student demonstrates effective applications of engineering projects.

6
Programme Specific Outcomes:
CSE:
PSO 1 : Foundation of mathematical concepts: To use mathematical methodologies to crack problem
using suitable mathematical analysis, data structure and suitable algorithm.
PSO 2 : Foundations of Software development: the ability to grasp the software development lifecycle
and methodologies of software systems. Possess competent skills and knowledge of software design
process. Familiarity and practical proficiency with a broad area of programming concepts and provide
new ideas and innovations towards research.
PSO 3 : To include knowledge required for configuration of computer networks and connections of
related networking components. Along with that inculcate how to implement wireless Internet
connections and how to protect networks from Cyber fraud.

ECE:
PSO 1: Understand and apply the fundamental concepts of Basic and Engineering Sciences for
appropriate up-skilling in the fast emerging fields of Signal Processing, Image Processing,
Communication, Networking, VLSI, Embedded Systems, Analog and Digital Technologies to meet
the futuristic industrial achievements.
PSO2: Apply latest hardware and software tools to solve complex electronics and communication
engineering problems along with analytical skills to derive appropriate solutions in the real time
applications across varied business and administrative functions.

EEE:
PSO 1: Graduates will be able to apply their knowledge to investigate various problems of electrical
and electronics circuits, power electronics, control systems and power systems. Moreover, they can
design, develop and implement industry automated products using PLC.
PSO 2: Graduates will be able to provide socially acceptable technical solutions to complex electrical
engineering problems with the application of modern software tools (PSPICE and MATLAB) and
appropriate techniques for Renewable and sustainable energy source development.

ME:
PSO 1: Graduates will be able to explore the technical knowledge and able to design a system,
product, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental,
social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability.
PSO 2: Graduates will be able to work comfortably with various machines, manufacturing and
processing equipment, and also can use proficiently various CAD/CAM/CIE software such as Auto
Cad, Catia, Pro E, Ansys, Nastran simulation tools like MAT Lab etc.

CE:
PSO1: Survey, map, plan & layout of infrastructures viz. canals, roads, etc. and apply knowledge of
environmental & geotechnical engineering.
PSO2: Acquire knowledge of various materials, techniques, skills and engineering tools required for
civil engineering structures including all types of buildings, irrigation structures, highways, railways,
docks & harbours etc.
PSO3: Analyze, design and execute the civil engineering structures with good knowledge in
engineering, mathematics & basic sciences

7
Course Objectives:

S. No Course Objectives
To learn the practical knowledge of Physical optics, Mechanics & Electronic
1
devices.
To provide the basic knowledge that is useful in Engineering physics
2
practical.
Set up an appropriate laboratory investigation addressing the principles and
3
applications of an area of physics.

Course Learning Outcomes:

S. No Course Learning Outcomes

Apply the basic laws of physics in the areas of classical mechanics,
1
Newtonian gravitation, special relativity, electro magnetism, physical optics.
Students gain the basic knowledge which is useful in industries and physical
2
universe.
Students gain the basic knowledge which is useful in industries and physical
3
universe.

Course Transferable Outcomes:

S. No Course Transferable Outcomes

1 Student will able to manage time and task.
2 Student will able to learn both independently and co-operatively.
3 Student will able to take responsibility and carry out laboratory test.
4 Student will able to initiative and lead other.
5 Student will able to use software relevant to the subject.

8
Mapping of Course Outcomes to Programme Outcomes and Programme Educational Objectives:
CO BTL
CO STATEMENT LEVEL

CO1 Apply the working principles of laboratory experiments in optics, mechanics, 3

electromagnetic and electronics and perform the experiments using required
apparatus.
CO2 Compute the required parameter by suitable formula using experimental values 3
(observed values) in mechanics, optics, electromagnetic and electronic
experiments.
CO3 Analyse the experimental results through graphical interpretation. 2

CO4 Recognize the required precautions to carry out the experiment and handling the 2
apparatus in the laboratory.
CO5 Demonstrate the working principles, procedures and applications. 3

CO – PO MAPPING
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
2 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
3 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
4 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
5 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1

CO –PSO Mapping

MECH CIVIL ECE CSE EEE

CO PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS
O1 O2 O1 O2 O3 O1 O2 O1 O2 O3 O1 O2

1 1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 -

2 - - - - - - - 1 - - - -

3 - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 -

4 - - - - - - - - - - - -

5 1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 -

9
Assessment Strategy:
A variety of learning strategies are used throughout the course.
S. No Teaching Learning and Assessment Strategy
Classroom Demonstration by Faculty In-charge through different Teaching
1
Methodologies
2 Extra Laboratory Session
3 Student- Faculty In-charge Discussion
4 Collaborative and Co-operative learn
5 Independent student study and Practice

PRACTICAL COURSES:

Assessment Method Marks

Continuous Internal Assessment 30
Semester End Examination 70
Total 100

 For practical courses, there shall be a continuous evaluation during the semester for
30 sessional marks and end examination shall be for 70 marks.

 Day-to-day work in the laboratory shall be evaluated for 15 marks by the concerned laboratory
teacher based on the regularity/record/viva and 15 marks for the internal test.

 The end examination shall be evaluated for 70 marks, conducted by the concerned laboratory
teacher and a senior expert in the subject from the same department.
 Procedure: 20 marks
 Experimental work & Results: 30 marks
 Viva voce: 20 marks.

Evaluation of Marks for the Laboratory Exam

Internal Marks - 30
For Laboratory courses there should be continuous evaluation during the semester for 30 Internal
Marks. The distribution of Internal Marks is given below.
Serial No Assessment Method Marks
1 Regularity 5
2 Record 5
3 viva 5
4 Internal Test 15
Total Marks 30

10
External Lab Exam - 70
Each semester end lab Examination shall be evaluated by an External Examiner along with an Internal
Examiner.
Serial No Assessment Method Marks
1 Procedure 20
Experimental work &
2 30
Results
3 Viva Voce 20
Total Marks 70

11
 RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Safety:
1. Students should have the prior knowledge about the lab they are doing.
2. When students are doing experiments with the Klystron mount and Gunn diode theyhave to be very
careful, and they have to avoid exposing them self to the microwaves.
3. If any kind of wrong thing happened while doing experiment, students have to immediately switch
off power supply on the work table.
4. Wearing loose garments inside the lab is strictly prohibited.
5. Students have to wear shoes compulsorily.

Attendance:
1. Students have to come to the laboratory with proper dress code and ID cards.
2. Students have to bring observation notebook, record note book and calculators etc. to the
laboratory.
3. Students have to sign in the log register after entering in to the lab and before leaving the lab.
4. Students have to enter the list of components they need for their experiment in the indent register.
5. Students have to show their observations with readings after completion of the experiment and they
have to get it signed.
6. After completion of a experiment students have to submit their completed records to the faculty of
the lab within a week.

Making connections:
1. Set up the microwave bench as per the block diagram starting from Klystron mount.
2. Complete the microwave experiment without disturbing the bench setup and power supply.
3. Call staff to check the connections before going to do your experiment.
4. Connect the circuit on the Optical trainer kit properly using patch cards and jumpers as per the
circuit diagram.
5. Handle Optical fibre cable carefully, sharp bends or twists can permanently damage it.
6. After completion of the lab all probes and patch chords should be kept in their actual position

12
Observation:
1. Do the experiment as per the procedure.
2. Enter all readings in a tabular form.
3. Draw the required graphs.

Calculation:
1. Perform the required calculations.
2. Compare the results with standard values.
3. Note down the results with units.

Record:
1. As the name implies, it is a permanent record for reference.
2. Write the record neatly.
3. Draw circuit diagrams neatly and label them correctly.
4. Enter the readings with units
5. Draw the required graphs.
6. Submit your completed record to the faculty of the lab within a week.

13
 I Year – I/II Semester ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB L T P C

R - 23 (CE,EEE,ME,ECE,CSE,CSM,CSC,CSD and CSO) 0 0 2 1

List of Experiments:
1. Determination of radius of curvature of a given Plano convex lens by Newton’s rings.

2. Determination of wavelengths of different spectral lines in mercury spectrum using

diffraction grating in normal incidence configuration.

3. Determination of energy gap of a semi-conductor using p-n junction diode.

4. Magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying circular coil by Stewart Gee’s Method.
5. Determination of temperature coefficients of a thermistor.
6. Determination of rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire using Torsional pendulum.
7. Sonometer: Verification of laws of stretched string.
8. Determination of Frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde’sexperiment.
9. Estimation of Planck’s constant using photoelectric effect (Virtual).
10. Determination of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient of a given semi-conductor using Hall Effect.
(Virtual).

References:
 A Textbook of Practical Physics - S. Balasubramanian, M.N. Srinivasan, S. Chand Publishers,
2017.
 URL:www.vlab.co.in

14
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1. VERNIER CALIPERS:
The Verniercallipers was invented by Paul Vernier. It consists of two long jaws J1 and J2. The
jaw J1 is fixed normal to the main scale M. A Vernier scale V is fixed to the jaw J2 which slides on the
main scale. The Vernier scale can be fixed at any position on the main scale by means of a screw S.
Two upper jaws J3 and J4 are also provided as shown in Fig. When the jaws J1 and J2 are brought into
contact, ordinarily the zero of Vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale.
i) Main scale:
On the main scale, one centimetre is divided into 10 divisions. So, each division is equal to
1
cm or 1mm.
10

ii) Vernier Scale:

On the Vernier scale a distance of 9mm is divided into 10 equal divisions. So, each Vernier
scale division id equal to 9/10 mm.
9
... 1 Vernier scale division (V.S.D) = 10mm

iii) Least count of an instrument (L.C):

The accuracy of any instrument depends on its least count. The least count is the smallest value
that can be measured by an instrument accurately.
Example: 1. By means of a meter scale one can measure length up to its least division i.e. 1mm. So,
its least count is 1mm.
2. By means of a watch, one can measure time up to one second exactly. Therefore, its least count is 1
sec.
Definition: Least count of an instrument is defined as the smallest measurement that can be made
accurately with it.

15
 ... The least count of Verniercallipers is equal to the difference of 1 M.S.D and 1 V.S.D.
... Least count, L.C = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
= 1mm – 9/10mm
= 1/10mm = 0.1mm = 0.01cm.

The least count of the Vernier can be found directly by applying the formula.
𝑺
L.C = 𝑵

Value of one main scale division, S

Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale, N
𝑺
... Least count of the Vernier, L.C = 𝑵

2. SCREW GAUGE:
The screw gauge consists of a U-shaped frame F with a shaft S fixed at one end and a hollow cylinder
A attached to the other end as shown in Fig. A screw S 1 works through the thread cut on the inner
surface of the cylinder A. A metallic cap B is attached to a milled head C called the head of the screw
so that they move together. Milled head is useful in just gripping the body in between the shafts. When
the body got just gripped, the milled head makes some sound on rotation, without further pushing the
shaft. The ends of the shaft S and the screw S 1 are parallel to each other. The cap B is provided with a
sloping edge E, which is divided into 100 equal divisions and is called the head scale H. There is a line
parallel to the axis of the cylinder called index line which is graduated in millimetres. This scale is
called the pitch scale P.

i) Pitch of the screw:

The linear distance advanced by the screw S1 on the pitch scale for one complete rotation of the
head is called the pitch of the screw (i.e. distance between tow consecutive threads of the screw).
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒘
... Pitch of the screw = 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

ii) Least count of the screw gauge (L.C):

The distance traversed by the screw on the pitch scale when the head rotated through one head
scale division is called the least count of the screw gauge.

16
 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
... Least count (L.C) = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

Before taking the observations, zero error on the screw gauge has to be noted.
iii) Zero error:
The head of the screw is rotated until the screw S1 just touches the fixed shaft S.
1. If the zero division of the head scale exactly coincides with the zero division of the pitch scale,
then there is no zero error and correction need not be applied in this case. (Fig. a)
Zero error = 0 divisions
Correction = 0 divisions
2. If the zero division of the head scale is above the pitch scale line (say 5 divisions), then the
error is negative (fig b) and the correction is positive. In this case,
Zero error = -5 divisions
Correction = +5 divisions
3. If the zero division of the head scale is below the pitch scale line (say 5 divisions) then the
error is positive (fig c) and the correction is negative. In this case,
Zero error = +5 divisions
Correction = -5 divisions
The above correction has to be added to the observed head scale coincidence while taking the
observations.
Back – lash Error:
This error occurs when instruments like screw gauge, spectrometer and travelling microscope are used,
which work on screw-nut principle. Due to wear and tear of the screw or non-perfect fitting, Some
space will be left between the screw and nut for its operation.Ifthe screw is rotated for a certain angle
of rotation in the forward direction and afterwards in the backward direction. Then the screw will not
move for a little motion of the head of the screw (or the misfits in the nut through which it moves).
This error is called back-lash error. In order to avoid this error, the screw must always be moved in the
same direction. This is to be remembered whenever we use any instrument using / involving screw
motion.

17
3. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE:
i) Description:
The travelling microscope is an ordinary compound microscope M which is used to obtain
magnification of small objects. The essential components of the microscope are i) the objective ii) the
eye-piece. The microscope is attached to a frame which can slide along a vertical pillar S (or post).
The vertical pillar together with the microscope can be moved along a horizontal platform P. The
platform is provided with levelling screws L1, L2 at the base. The horizontal displacement of the
microscope can be measured on a horizontal scale S 2 on the platform and the vertical displacement can
be measured on a vertical scale S1engraved on the vertical pillar. The distance between the objective
and the eye-piece can be adjusted with a rack and pinion screw S 5.
The Vernier V1 and V2 are provided on the vertical and horizontal scales. The microscope can
be set with its axis either in the vertical or in the horizontal position by means of a screw which is not
shown in the figure. The microscope can be fixed at any desired position on the vertical as well as on
the horizontal scales with the screws S3 and S4respectively. Fine adjustments in the vertical and
horizontal directions can be made by means of two tangential screws T 1 and T2. The object to be
focused should be placed on the platform or to be fixed to a retort stand.
ii) Adjustments:
1) The base of the microscope should be leveled perfectly horizontal by adjusting the leveling
screws.
2) The least count of the Vernier scales attached should be found.
3) The eye-piece of the microscope is distinctly focused upon the cross-wires by drawing the eye-
piece in or out (Or) the eye-piece should be adjusted until the cross wires are clearly seen by
drawing it in or out. Turn the microscope towards the object to be observed and adjust it till the
image of the object is distinctly visible and there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the
image.
4) A piece of white paper having an ink mark on it is placed on the platform. The microscope is to
be moved along the vertical scale and to be adjusted such that the ink mark is clearly seen,
incase, the object to be seen is to be arranged on the platform as in the case of Newton’s rings.
5) The microscope should always be moved in one direction to avoid the back-lash error.
iii) Vertical scale or horizontal scale:
Example: If on the vertical scale (or horizontal scale) one centimetre is divided into 20 divisions, each
division is equal to (1/20) cm or 1/2mm.
... 1 Main scale division (1M.S.D) = (1/2) mm
iv) Vernier scale: On the Vernier scale a distance of 49 mm is divided into 50 equal divisions. So
each Vernier scale division is equal to (49/50)mm

18
 ... 1 Vernier scale division (1V.S.D) = (49/50) mm
v) Least count of the Vernier of the microscope:
The vertical or horizontal scale is graduated in centimetres. One centimetre is divided into 20
equal divisions. On the Vernier scale a distance of 49 mm is divided into 50 equal divisions.
Value of one main scale division, S = ½ mm = 0.5mm
Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale, N = 50
... Least count of the Vernier of the microscope, L.C = S/N = 0.5/50 mm
=0.01mm = 0.001 cm.
vi) Uses: It is used to determine the diameter of the bore of a capillary tube, Newton’s rings
etc.
4. SPECTROMETER:
Adjustments of the spectrometer:
Before using the spectrometer for any experimental observation, the following optical and mechanical
adjustments are to make.
a) Optical adjustments
i) Focussing of eye-piece on the cross-wires
Turn the telescope towards a white surface or a white wall and adjust the distance between the
cross-wires and the eye-piece by slowly moving the eye-piece inside or outside till the cross-wires are
most distinctly seen.
ii) Adjustment of the telescope for parallel rays
Take the spectrometer to an open place and it on a stool. Turn the telescope towards a distant
object (the top of distant telegraph pole or a tree) and adjust the distance between the objective and
eye-piece by a rack and pinion screw until there is no parallax between the image of the object and the
cross-wires whatever may be the point of view of the observer. Now, the telescope is said to be
adjusted to receive the parallel rays.
iii) Adjustment of collimator: Widen the slit of the collimator and illuminate it with the source of
light. Then turn the telescope in line with the collimator and adjust the distance between the slit and
the collimating lens by a rack and pinion screw until a clear and well defined image of the slit is
observed through the telescope without parallax between the image of the slit and the cross-wires. As
the telescope is already adjusted to receive parallel rays, the beam emerging out of the collimator is
now said to have been adjusted to see a parallel beam. The slit should be vertical.
iv). Slit adjustment: Narrow down the slit to avoid aberrations and to make the spectrum pure.

19
v) Levelling of the prism table
By means of spirit level and the levelling screws, the prism table can be adjusted perfectly
horizontal. Place the sprit level on the prism table with its length parallel to the lone joining any two of
the levelling screws. Adjust the two screws so that the air bubble in the spirit level is at its centre.
Then, place the spirit level along the perpendicular to the line joining these two screws and adjust the
third screw until the air bubble in the spirit level is at its centre again. Now, the prism table will be
perfectly horizontal.
Description:
A spectrometer is an optical instrument used to produce and study various types of spectra. The
essential components of a spectrometer are (i) Collimator, (ii) Prism table and (iii) Telescope. The
instrument is supported on a heavy metal base which is provided with levelling screws L1 and L2. In
the spectrometer, the circular scale is fixed on the cylindrical block to which telescope is rigidly fixed
and it can be rotated about the same vertical axis about which Vernier table and prism table rotate.

(i) Collimator:
The collimator is a device to produce a parallel beam of
light. The collimator consists of two coaxial cylindrical metal tubes
one sliding into the other. A convex lens is fitted to one end of one
tube and an adjustable vertical slit (rectangular) is fixed to the outer end of the other tube. The width
of the slit can be adjusted by means of a screw S 1. The distance
between the slit and the lens can be altered by a rack and pinion screw
S2. The collimator is fixed to the base of the instrument, with its axis
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the prism table. When the slit, which
is in the focal plane of the lens is illuminated with a source of light (i.e.,
when the length of the collimator is equal to the focal length of the lens)
the rays of light emerging out of the lens will be parallel.
(ii) Prism table:
It consists of two circular metal plates which are joined together by means of three levelling
screws and springs (x, y, z), with the help of which it can be made perfectly horizontal. On the surface
of the upper disc are drawn concentric circles and also straight lines parallel to the line joining two of
the levelling screws. The prism table can be raised or lowered or can be fixed at any desired height by
means of a screw S3 and this can be fixed to the Vernier table. Slow motion of the Vernier table along
20
with the prism table can be made by a tangential screw provided at the base of the instrument. The axis
of rotation of the prism table passes through the centre of the circular scale, called the main scale
which is graduated in half degrees. Readings can be taken with the help of two diametrically opposite
Vernier V1 and V2, which are provided on a Vernier table. This is to minimize errors due to non-
coincidence of the centre of the circular scale with the axis of rotation.
(iii) Telescope:
The telescope is of astronomical type. Which is used to
receive the parallel beam of light? It consists of two coaxial
cylindrical hollow metal tubes, one sliding inside the other. An
objective (an achromatic combination of lenses or convex lens) is
fixed at the inner side of the outer tube, which is towards the prism
table. The inner tube is fitted with a third tube carrying cross-wires and an eye-piece. The distance
between the objective and eye-piece can be adjusted by rack and pinion screw S 6 while that between
the cross-wire and the eye-piece can be adjusted by moving it in or out by hand. The telescope is fixed
to a vertical support and can be rotated (about the vertical axis of rotation of the prism table) or fixed
at any desired position with a screw S5. Slow motion of the telescope can be made with a tangential
screw S7. The position of the telescope can be read on a circular scale fixed to it with the help of two
diametrically opposite vernier. When parallel rays from the collimator falls on the objective, the image
of the slit is formed in the focal plane of the eye-piece where cross-wires are fixed.
To determine the least count of the Vernier of the spectrometer:
Example:
The circular scale is graduated into half degrees i.e. from 0 0 to 3600. One degree is divided into
two divisions. The vernier scale is divided into 60 equal divisions.
One the circular scale, 2 divisions = 10
= 60′
... Value of one main scale division, (1M.S.D), S
= 30′
Total number of divisions on the vernier, N
= 60
30′ 1 ′
... Least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, L.C = S/N = 60 = (2) = 30′′

21
 MELDE’S EXPERIMENT
Expt.No: 01 Date:

Aim: To determine the frequency of a vibrator or an electrically maintained tuning fork using Melde’s
arrangement.
Apparatus: Electrically maintained vibrator or tuning fork, light frictionless pulley fixed to a stand,
sewing thread, a light scale pan made of cardboard, a weight box, balance, meter scale, a storage cell,
plug key, rheostat and connecting wires.
Formula:
1. For the transverse mode of vibration of the thread, the frequency of the tuning fork is given by
1 √𝑇
𝑛1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
2 √𝑚 𝑙

2. For the longitudinal mode of vibration of the thread, the frequency of the tuning fork is given by
1 √𝑇
𝑛2 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
√𝑚 𝑙
Where l = average length of one loop of the thread.
T = tension applied to the thread.
M = total mass attached to the thread (mass of the pan + mass
Added in the pan)
g = acceleration due to gravity (980 cm / Sec2)
m = mass per unit length of the thread (liner density).
Description:
Melde’s apparatus consists of tuning fork F (made of steel) of low frequency. The stem of the
tuning fork is rigidly clamped on a non-metallic base by means of a screw clamp. An electromagnet M
is placed between the prongs of the tuning fork without touching the prongs. A short metal strip S
(brass) with a platinum tipped point is connected to one prong of the tuning fork. With the help of a
movable screw C (platinum) contact can be made with the metal strip S. The established a make and
break arrangement at S which maintains the vibrations of the fork. A battery B, rheostat Rh (adjustable
resistance), plug key K, metal strip S and the screw C are connected between the two ends of the coil
wound on the electromagnet. After inserting the plug, the tip of the screw C is adjusted until it just
touches the metal strip S, Then, current flows through the electromagnet, is gets energized and pull the
metal strip S. Then, current flows through the electromagnet, it gets energized and pull the prongs
inward (due to attractive force of the electromagnet). This breaks the contact between the metal strip S
and the screw C. As a result, the electromagnet looses its magnetism. Due to the elastic property, the
prongs go back to their original position and this establishes a contact between the metal strip S and
22
the screw C (i.e. the circuit is again closed). The magnet is again energized and the prongs are pulled
inwards. The process is repeated due to the automatic make and break of the circuit. Thus the fork
vibrated continuously.
A smooth frictionless pulley P fixed to a retort stand is to be placed at a distance of about 2 to 3
meters from the fork. Take a long uniform (inextensible) sewing thread and connect one end of it to
one of the prongs of the tuning fork. Connect the other end of the thread to a small scale pan (which
cam be loaded with suitable weights) after passing it over the smooth frictionless pulley.
Principle:
When a small weight is placed in the scale pan and the circuit is closed, the fork vibrated. If the
length between the fork and the pulley is adjusted properly, then the disturbance is carried along the
thread which appears in the form of a wave. This wave is called a progressive wave. When this wave
reaches the pulley, it gets reflected and interfere (or super impose) with the incident wave (or forward
wave). Therefore, stationary waves are produced and as a result the thread is divided into a number of
loops with will-defined nodes. There are regions of alternate maximum and minimum vibrations of the
thread. These are called antinodes and nodes. The point at which the amplitude is maximum is called
an antinode and minimum is called a node. The vibrating segment of the thread between the two nodes
is called loop. The experiment can be performed with two orientations of the thread with respect to the
tuning fork. (Or) the experiment can be performed by arranging the tuning fork into two ways so as to
produce (1) transverse waves and (2) longitudinal waves along the thread.
Modes of vibrations:
a) When the direction of motion of the prong is at right angles to the length of the string the
vibrations of the thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
b) When the direction of motion of the prong is along the length of the string the vibrations of the
thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
Procedure:
1. Longitudinal mode of vibration:

23
If the tuning fork is arranged such that the vibrations of the prong of the tuning fork are parallel to the
direction of propagation of the waves along the thread (or parallel to the direction of the length of the
thread), then the arrangement is known as longitudinal mode of vibration. In this case the time taken
by the tuning fork to complete one vibration is equal to twice the time taken by the thread for one
complete vibration. Therefore, the frequency of vibration of the string is equal to half that of tuning
fork. Repeat the experiment same as explained above, Note the observations in table. The frequency of
the tuning fork can be calculated using the formula 2.
 To determine the linear density m (i.e. mass per unit length) of the thread.

Take 10 meters of the sewing thread and find its mass M1. The linear density m of the thread can be
found as follows:
Total mass of the thread, M1 = mg
Length of the thread, L1 = meter
𝑀1
Linear density m of the thread, m= = gm
𝐿1

(i.e., mass per unit length, of the thread)

1. Transverse mode of vibration:

The
electrical connections are to be made as shown in fig. If the tuning fork is arranged such that the
vibrations of the prong of the tuning fork are perpendicular to the direction of the length of the thread
(or perpendicular to the direction of the thread) then the set up is known as transverse mode of
vibration. Now, arrange the pulley at a distance of 3 meters from the tuning fork.
Find the mass of the empty scale pan (R gram) and place a load of 1 gram in it. Adjust the
positions of the pulley and stand so that the thread is horizontal and parallel to the prong. Close the
circuit by inserting the plug and adjust the contact point so that it touches the metal strip S. Adjust the
position of the pulley so that the thread breaks up into a number of well defind loops. Adjust the
tension and the length of the thread between the pulley and fork so that vibrations of constant
maximum amplitude with a convenient number of well-defined loops (say 6 to 8) are formed in the

24
nodes. Then switch of the current and measure the total distance L between the marks made. Find the
length l of a single loop.
Repeat the experiment by increasing the load in the pan and in each case find the length of a
single loop. Note the observations in table. Here the time taken by the fork to perform one complete
vibration is equal to the time taken by the string to complete one vibration. So, the frequency of the
fork is equal to the frequency of the thread. The frequency n of the tuning fork can be calculated by
using the formula 1

S. No. Load applied in the pan Tension No of Length of Length of √𝑇

M = (R + mass added in T = Mg loops, P loops, one loop 𝑙
the pan) gm (P) (L) cm 𝑙 = (L/P)
cm
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Observations
1. Transverse mode of vibration of thread
Mass of the pan, R = gm Average value of √𝑇 / 𝑙 =
1 √𝑇
Calculations: 𝑛1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
2√𝑚 𝑙

2. Longitudinal mode of vibration of thread

Mass of the pan, R = gm
S.No. Load applied in the pan Tension No of Length of Length of √𝑇
M = (R + mass added in T = Mg loops, P P loops, one loop 𝑙
the pan) gm L cm 𝑙 = (L/P)
cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average value of √𝑇 / l =
1 √𝑇
Calculations: 𝑛2 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
√𝑚 𝑙

25
Precautions:
1. The thread used in this experiment should be thin, uniform linear density and inextensible.
2. A frictionless pulley should be used so that the tension of the string does not appreciably differ
from the weight hanging from its end.
3. Observations should be noted when the amplitude of vibration at the anti node is maximum.
4. The plane of vibration of the thread should not rotate.
Result:

Frequency of Longitudinal mode Transverse mode Average value

the tuning fork (Hertz) (Hertz) (Hertz)

Viva Questions
1. What is a tuning fork?
A. It is a source of standard frequency. It consists of a U-shaped steel bar provided with arms of
equal length and a rigid handle (or stem) at its middle point.
2. What is an electrically maintained tuning fork or vibrator?
A. A tuning fork which is maintained in a state of vibration by supplying energy periodically to it
form an external electric source is known as electrically maintained tuning fork.
3. Why steel is used for a tuning fork?
A. The density of steel is low and elasticity is high. This is because the frequency of a tuning fork
is inversely proportional to the square toot of the density of the material of the fork and directly
proportional to the square toot of the elasticity of the material of the fork.
4. What type of waves are produced in the string?
A. Transverse stationary waves are produced in both the cases (longitudinal and transverse mode
of vibrations).
5. What are stationary waves?
A. When two simple harmonic waves of the same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite
directions in a straight line superimpose, then the resultant wave obtained is called a stationary
wave or a standing wave.
6. What are Nodes and Antinodes?
A. Node: A point in a stationary wave pattern where the vibration is minimum.
Antinode: Point of maximum displacement in a stationary wave pattern.
7. What type of string must be used in this experiment?
A. A thin, inextensible thread of uniform linear density.

26
 NEWTON’S RINGS
Expt. No: 02. Date:
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of a given Plano - convex lens by forming Newton’s rings.
Apparatus: A Plano convex lens of large focal length about 100cm. Two plane glass plates, black
cloth or paper, travelling microscope, a condensing lens, sodium vapour lamp, and a retort stand.
Formula: The radius of curvature of a given Plano convex lens is determined by the formula
𝑫𝟐𝒎 − 𝑫𝟐𝒏
R= cm
𝟒𝝀(𝒎−𝒏)
Where R = radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate.
Dm = diameter of mth dark ring (from graph)
Dn = diameter of nth dark ring (from graph)
m, n = number of the chosen rings ( from graph)
λ = wavelength of the monochromatic source of light (sodium light)
λ = 5893 = 5893 x 10-8cms
Description:
S is a monochromatic source of light which is arranged at a suitable distance from a condensing lens C
(i.e. at its focus) such that a parallel beam of light rays will incident on the glass plate G arranged at
450 to the horizontal. The glass plate G in turn partially reflects the beam and this turns it by 90 0 and
makes it incident normally on the experimental lens L, which encloses a thin film of air between its
lower surface and the glass plate P. A part of the incident light is reflected by the surface of the lens L
and a part is transmitted which is reflected from the surface of the plane glass plate. These two
reflected rays, as these are derived from the same source interfere and give rise to an interference
pattern in the form of circular rings. When these rings are viewed through a microscope M focused on
the air film, alternate dark and bright rings with a central dark spot appears. These rings are called
Newton’s rings.

27
Arrangement of the microscope to receive the ring system
The glass plate P and the convex lens L should be cleaned well with a lens paper. Place the
glass plate on a black paper and keep a white paper after putting an ink
dot over it, on the glass plate. The microscope is adjusted such that the ink dot on the white paper is
distinctly seen in field of view of the eye-piece, without parallax with cross-wires. This is required
because the interference rings form in that plane. Then, remove the paper and place the convex lens
with its convex surface in contact with the surface of the glass plat P. An air-film is formed between
the lens and the plate. The thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact and gradually
increases radically outwards. The curves of constant thickness are circles with their centres at the point
of contact.
NOTE: Sometimes instead of the dark spot at the centre, a bright spot may appear. This is due to the
presence of the dust particles between the lens and the glass plate. When it happens, the lens and the
glass plate should be clean well to get a dark spot. For obtaining brighter ring pattern, the height of the
glass plate G and its inclination are to be carefully adjusted.
Procedure:
Viewing through the microscope the rings thus formed, move the microscope’s vertical pillar
horizontally on the base such that the point of intersection of the cross-wires coincides with the central
dark spot. By counting the central spot as zero, move the microscope to the left side using the slow
motion screw counting the dark rings. When the vertical cross-wire is tangential to the 20th ring, note
the main scale reading and the venire coincidence. Now, move the microscope towards the centre of
the ring system and make the vertical cross-wire coincide with 18th, 16th, 14th, 12th, 8th, 6th, 4th and 2nd
ring and note down the readings of M.S.R and V.C as above. Then, move the microscope towards the
right side of the central spot and note the readings for 2 nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, ….etc as was done on left side.
The difference between the readings of any particular ring on left side (d1) and right side (d2) gives the
diameter of the particular ring. The square of the diameter for each ring can be found.
NOTE: While taking the observations, the microscope should be moved only in one particular direction

using slow motion screw to avoid back-lash error.

28
 Graph:

Draw a graph with number of dark rings on the x-axis and the square of the diameter of the rings on y-
2
axis. A straight line passing through the origin will be obtained. From the graph, the values of 𝐷𝑚 and
𝐷𝑛2 corresponding to mth and nth rings are to be noted. By substituting the above values in the formula,
the radius of curvature of the given lens can be found.
Observations:
1. To determine the diameter D of dark rings: Travelling Microscope
Value of 1 main scale division S = 1/20 cm = 0.05
Number of divisions on the venire scale, N = 50
... Least count, L.C = S/N = 0.05/50 =0.001cm
No.of MICROSCOPE READINGS Diameter
dark ring of the ring
Left end of the rings Right end of the rings D = d1 ~ d2
(Cm) D2
MSR VC Total reading MSR VC Total reading
(a) (n) d1=a+ (n x L.C) a n d2=a+ (n x L.C) (cm)
cm cm

29
 𝑫𝟐𝒎 − 𝑫𝟐𝒏
Calculation: R = cm
𝟒𝝀(𝒎−𝒏)

Precautions:
1. The lens and the glass plate should be thoroughly cleaned with benzene or spirit.
2. Light should be incident normally on the lens.
3. The radius of curvature of the lens should be large so that the diameter of the rings is large and
2
error in finding the value of (𝐷𝑚 - 𝐷𝑛2 ) is small.
4. The central spot should be dark.
5. While taking the observations, the travelling microscope should always be moved in one
direction to avoid error due to back – lash.
Result: The Radius of curvature of given Plano convex lens is R = Cm

Viva Questions
1. What do you mean by interference of light?
A. When two light waves superimpose upon each other, then the resultant amplitude in the region of
superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves. This modification in the
distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference. When the resultant
amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, the interference is known as
constructive interference and when the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of the
amplitudes, the interference is known as destructive interference.
2. What are the conditions for obtaining interference of light?
A. (i) The two source should be coherent i.e., they should vibrate in the same phase or constant
phase difference.
(ii) The two sources must emit waves of same wave length and time period.
(iii). The sources should be monochromatic.
(iv). The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal.
3. How does interference occur in Newton’s rings?
A. When a Plano-convex surface is placed on a glass plate, an air film is formed between the two. A
part of the incident light is reflected by the upper surface of the lens and a part is transmitted
which is reflected from the surface of the plane glass plate. As the two reflected rays are derived
from the same source, they interfere and produce interference pattern in the form of circular
rings. When monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens and viewed in the
reflected light, through a microscope, alternate dark and bright rings with a central dark spot
appears. These rings are called Newton’s rings.

30
4. Where are the interference fringes formed?
A. The fringes are formed in the air film enclosed between the lens and the glass plate.
5. Why do you get the central ring dark?
A. At the point of contact between the lens and the plate the thickness of the air film is zero and the
𝜆
two interfering waves have a phase difference of 𝜋 and hence a path difference of which
2

makes central fringe dark.

6. Why Newton’s rings are circular?
A. Path difference of a light ray along a circle is constant.
7. Under what conditions do you get central fringe bright?
A. If the fringe system is formed in the transmitted light the central fringe will be bright. Also, when
the dust particles are present between the lens and the glass plate.
8. Are the rings equip spaced?
A. No, spacing between the rings decreases with the increase of order.
9. Why do you not observe the fringes in the transmitted light?
A. Because, the rings formed in the transmitted system are fainter and contrast between the bright
and dark rings is very poor.
10. Why do you use sodium light?
A. In order to obtain the fringe pattern as alternate dark and bright rings, monochromatic light
should be used. Monochromatic light is given by sodium light.
11. What will happen when the sodium lamp is replaced by a white light source?
A. A series of colored fringes are formed near the centre (in both the reflected and transmitted
light). The violet colour will come first as we proceed away from the centre. Due to
superposition of the colored rings an almost uniform illumination results after a few rings.
12. Without using light, can you demonstrate interference effects?
A. Yes, it can be demonstrated on the surface of water.
13. What is the use of interference phenomenon?
A. The phenomenon of interference is used to give experimental confirmation of wave nature of
light and also used to determine the wavelength of light.
14. Can you measure refractive index of a liquid using this apparatus?
A. Yes, by enclosing the liquid between the lower surface of the lens and the glass plate.
15. What are the uses of Newton’s rings?
A. (i).To determine wavelength of monochromatic light.
(ii). To determine the refractive index of a liquid.
(iii). To measure the radius of curvature of a spherical surface.
(iv). To measure expansion coefficients of crystals.

31
 TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Expt. No: 03. Date:

Aim: To determine the Modulus of rigidity of the material of the given wire using a Torsional
pendulum.
Apparatus: Torsional pendulum (A Circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre,
steel wire or brass wire or copper wire any one, another chuck and nut fixed to a wall bracket), Stop
watch, Screw gauge, Venire Callipers, Meter scale.
Description: The Torsional pendulum consists of uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10cm
diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the chuck at the centre of the
disc and upper end is gripped into another chuck which is fixed to a wall bracket.
Theory:

When the disc is rotated in a horizontal plane to the radial position then the wire gets twisted. Wire
will exert a torque on the disc tending to returns it to the first position. This is the restoring torque.
For small twists, the restoring torque is proportional to the amount of twist or the angular displacement
(From hook’s law) so thatLet  be the angle through which the wire is twisted. “a” is the radius of the
Wire, ‘l’ is the length of the wire between chuck and ‘η’ is the rigidity of Modulus of the material of

the wire, Then the restoring couple set up in it is equal to

 .n.a .   c
4

2l
( .a 4 .n)
 c --------
1 Where ‘c’ is the Torsional Constant
2l
1
(Twisting couple per unit (radian) twist of the wire).
32
This produces an angular acceleration (dw/dt) in the disc
Therefore if “I” is the moment of inertia of the disc about the wire we have

 c. dw    c  
dw
I.
dt dt I
i.e Negative sign shows that torque is directed opposite to the angular displacement’’, the angular
dw
acceleration ( ) of the angular displacement() and therefore its motion is simple harmonic hence
dt
time period is given by

I
T= 2π ----------------------- 2
c
8 I l
From 1 & n 2 
a4 T 2
2 geometric2 axes coincide with the axis of rotation. The moment of
In case of a circular disc whose

inertia “I” is given by I=

 MR  where M is the mass of disc and “R” is the radius of the disc.
2

2
Procedure:
The circular metal disc is suspended. The length of the wire between the chucks is adjusted to 90cm.
When the disc is in equilibrium position, a small mark is made on the curved edge of the disc. This
marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by the disc when the disc oscillates. The
disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small angle. When the disc is oscillating the
time taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the help of a stopwatch and recorded in the observations
table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again the time taken for
10 oscillations is noted and recorded in the observations table in trail 2. From trail 1 and 2 the mean
time for 10 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T) i.e. the time taken for one oscillation is
calculated. The experiment is repeated, by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and the
results are tabulated in table. The radius of the wire ‘a’ is to be found accurately with the help of a
screw gauge since it occurs as the fourth power in final equation. The radius and the mass of the disc
are found with a Vernier callipers and a rough balance respectively. The mean value of (l/T2) is
substituted in final equation and η is calculated.
A graph is also drawn with ‘l’ on the x - axis and T2 on the y – axis. It will linear as shown in
the figure. From the graph, the value of T 2 for as large as a value of ‘l’ is noted and this value of (l/T 2)
is substituted in final equation and the rigidity of the modulus of material of the material of the wire η
is calculated.

33
Model Graph:
Y

T2

Observations:
X
Mass of the disc: M =1000 gm l
Radius of the disc: R = cm
Radius of the wire: a = cm.

Table – 1: To measure the radius of the disc by using Vernier callipers.

L.C. of Vernier Callipers = 1 M.S.D / Total V.S.D. =1/10 = 0.1mm = 0.01cm
Main Scale reading Vernier
V.C. x L.C. = B Diameter
S. No. (MSR)(cm) coincidence
(cm) A + B (cm)
A (V.C)
1
2
3

Table - 2: To measure the radius of the wire with screw gauge.

Pitch of the screw = Distance travelled by the screw / Number of rotations
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 1
L.C. of Screw Gauge = = = 0.01mm = 0.001cm
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 100

Zero Error =0 Correction = 0

pitch Scale Corrected Diameter of the wire
Head scale
reading Head Scale C.H.S.R x L.C. A + B (mm)
S. No. Reading
A(mm) Reading (B) (mm)
(H.S.R)
(PSR) (C.H.S.R) (D)

Radius (a) = D/2 =

34
 l
Table – 3: Determination of
T2
Time taken
Length of Time taken for 10 oscillation for one
oscillation l
S.No the wire T2
Trial – 1 Trail – 2 Mean T2
l ( cm) T= (t/20)
( t1 ) ( t2 ) (t) T = t / 10

1
2
3

Calculations:
4𝜋 𝑙
Formulae: Rigidity Modulus of wire η= 𝑀𝑟 2
𝑎4 𝑇2

Precautions: 1.The length between the chucks should be measured carefully.

2. Screw gauge and Vernier Callipers readings have to be noted with accuracy.
Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is determined using Torsional Pendulum.
η=
Viva Questions
1. Define the different types of module of elasticity
A. There are three moduli in use.
Young’s modulus: The ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain, with in the elastic limits is
called young’s modulus of the material. Its unit is N /m2.
Bulk modulus: When a uniform pressure is applied over the whole surface of a body, it produces a
uniform compression. the compressor is proportional to the pressure, and the ration of pressure to
the volume strain is called bulk modulus it is measured in N/m2.

2. What is Torsional pendulum?

A. A body suspended from a rigid support by means of a long and thin elastic wire is called Torsional
pendulum.

3. What is the type of oscillation?

A. This is of simple harmonic oscillation type

4. On what factors does the time period?

A. It depends upon:
a. Moment of inertia of the body
b. Rigidity of wire i.e., length, radius and material of the wire.

35
5. How will you determine the rigidity of fluids?
A. As fluids do not have a shape of their own, hence they do not posses rigidity. Hence there is no
question of determining.

6. Define time period.

A. Time taken for one complete oscillation.

7. Define Rigidity of modulus

A. When tangential surface forces are applied on a body, the successive layers of the material are
moved or sheared. This type of strain is called shearing strain. The ratio of tangential stress to
shearing strain is called Rigidity of Modulus.
i.e Rigidity of modulus = Tangential Stress / shearing Strain.
Tangential Stress = Force/ Area.
Shearing Strain = θ.

8. Define Moment of Inertia.

A. It is the measure of the inertia of a body in rotator motion. It depends upon the axis of rotation,
mass of the body and also on the distribution of the mass about the axis.

9. What is the meaning in calling this a pendulum?

A. The disk is making oscillations around a vertical axis passing through its centre of mass and hence
the arrangement is called a Torsional pendulum.

10. Difference between simple pendulum and Torsional pendulum?

A. In a simple pendulum the simple harmonic motion is due to the restoring force which is the
component of the weight of the bob. In a Torsional pendulum the simple harmonic motion is due to
restoring couple arising out of torsion and shearing strain.

11. What is S.H.M.?

A. A body is said to have a S.H.M., if its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point on its
path and is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point.

12. What is Young's modulus?

A.I t is the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

13. What is restoring force (net force) acting on the bob?

A. If the air friction is neglected, restoring force on the bob = mg Sin θ.

14. What is net force on the bob, at equilibrium (mean) position?

A. Zero, since at mean position the weight of the bob is perfectly balanced by the tension (T) in the
string.

36
 STEWART-GEE’S METHOD

Expt. No: 4. Date:

Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field along axis of current carrying circular coil by using
Stewart – Gee’s method.

Apparatus: Stewart Gee galvanometer, Battery, Plug key, Commentator, Rheostat and Ammeter and
Connecting wires.

Formula: B= BH Tan θ Oersted

Where, B = Magnetic induction
BH = Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field (0.38 Oerstads)
θ = average angle of deflection of the magnetic needle.

Circuit diagram:

Description:
1. Magnetic compass box
The magnetic compass box consists of a very small magnetic needle pivoted on a sharp support
at the centre of a circular scale. A light, thin and long aluminum pointer (non – magnetic) is rigidly
fixed perpendicular to the axis of the needle at its centre which reads the angle through which the
magnetic needle moves on the horizontal circular scale. The circular scale is graduated in degrees and
divided into four equal quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0 0 to 900 so that the diametrically
opposite points indicate the same reading. A circular plane mirror is fixed just below the pointer which
enables to take the readings of the Pinter without error due to parallax. The needle, the aluminum
pointer and the circular scale are encased in a circular brass box with a glass top to protect the needle
from the draughts of air.

37
2. Stewart and Gee’s type of tangent galvanometer:

Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer consists of a non-magnetic circular frame. The frame is
rigidly fixed at the middle of a horizontal wooden base with its plane vertical. The base is three sets of
thick insulated copper wire having different turns are wrapped on the circular frame. One end of all the
coils is connected to the extreme left terminal and the other free ends of the coil are connected to the
terminals and provided at the base of the instrument. The circular frame is large enough to keep a
magnetic compass box like that of the deflection magnetometer to pass along the axis of circular coil.
The magnetic compass box is placed on a platform which is capable of sliding horizontally at right
angles to the plane of the circular coil on a rectangular non-magnetic metal frame supported on four
uprights. A scale which is graduated in cm is engraved on one side of the metal frame by means of
which the distance of the magnetic needle from the centre of the coil can be read with the index
marked on the sliding platform. The zero of the scale is fixed at the centre and increases on both sides.
Here, the centres of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis of the circular coil for all positions of
the magnetic compass box. (In another form of this instrument, the compass box is permanently sixed
at the centre of the scale and the entire scale can be moved along the axis of the coil).
Procedure:
1. To set the circular coil in magnetic meridian:
Levels the wooden base, so that it is perfectly horizontal by means of the levelling screws. Place the
magnetic compass box on the sliding platform and keep it at the centre of the coil (reference mark on
the platform should coincide with the zero division on the scale). In the absence of the external
magnetic field, the vertical plane of the circular coil must be along the magnetic meridian. When
current is passed through the circular coil, the resultant magnetic field will be along the axis of the
coil. To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of the circular coil the following procedure
should be adopted. Rotate the wooden base in the horizontal plane until the arms of the base are
parallel to the aluminium pointer in the magnetic compass box (i.e., arms are east and west direction)
and the magnetic needle is parallel to the vertical plane of the circular coil. In this position, the coil,
38
magnetic needle and its image all lie in the same vertical plane. Now, without disturbing the coil,
rotate the magnetic compass box until the ends of the aluminium pointer reads 0 – 0 on both sides of
the circular scale of the deflection magnetometer.
2. To determine the angle of deflection θ of the magnetic needle:
Connect the two terminals of the wooden base (n = 50) to the tow opposite terminals of
Commentator. A battery B, rheostat R, ammeter A and plug key K are to be connected in series will
the other two opposite terminals of the Commentator. Close the key K. As the current flows through
the coil, it behaves as a magnet with north pole on one face and south pole on the other face. Adjust
the rheostat till the aluminium pointer shows a deflection of about 600. Note the deflections θ1 and
θ2against the ends of the aluminium pointer on the circular scale and kept the ammeter reading
constant throughout the experiment. Now, reverse the direction of current through the coil, by means
of the Commentator and again not e the deflections θ3 and θ4. If the mean deflections of the
aluminium pointer before and after reversing the direction of the current are equal, it ensures that the
vertical plane of the coil lies exactly in the magnetic meridian. If the mean deflections of the
aluminium pointer before and after reversing the direction of current are differ by more than 30, it
reveals that coil is not set exactly in the magnetic meridian. Then, slightly turn the base of the
apparatus till the deflections before and after reversal of the direction of current through the coil is
equal.
Now, open the key, move the platform towards east along the scale and place it at a distance x
(say 2 cm) from the centre of the coil. Close the key and note the deflections before and after reversal
of the current. Find the mean of the four readings, which gives the mean deflections θ. Repeat the
experiment by placing the platform at various distances (say 4cm, 6cm, 8cm) until the deflections falls
to about 300. At each position find the mean deflection. Beyond 60 0, the value of θ cannot be taken
accurate as Tan900 happened to be infinity. Similarly the deflections below 30 0, cannot be taken as
accurate as Tan00 happened to be zero. Move the platform towards west form the centre of the coil and
note the readings in table. For the same distances as was done on east. At each position, find the mean
deflection θ.
3. To determine the radius a of the circular coil:
Take a thread of about one meter along and wind it over the circumference of the coil. Measure
›the length (l )of the thread. Then,
𝑙
Circumference of the coil, 2𝜋a = l cm, therefore, Radius of the coil, a = = cm.
2𝜋
The intensity of the magnetic field F at a point on the axis of a circular coil of n turns and of
radius a due to a current i passing through it can be calculated using the formula. The theoretical value
obtained from the formula can be compared from the value that obtained form the formula
experimentally.
39
Graph:

A graph is drawn with tan θ along y-axis and distance x from the centre of the coil along x-axis. This
graph shows the variation of the magnetic field on the axis of a circular coil with distance. It is
symmetrical about y-axis and the magnetic field is maximum at the centre of the coil.
Observations:
Current i = 0.2amp; BH=0.38 Oersted.

S.No Position of Distance Deflections Average Tan θ B= BH Tan θ

. magneto meter x 𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4 θ
(cm)
1
2 East of the coil
3

4 center
5
6 West of the coil
7

Precautions:
1. Take the readings in the deflection magnetometer readings without error.
2. Current in the ammeter is constant.
3. From the objects should be kept away from the coil.
4. The magnetic compass box and the coil should not be disturbed after setting the coil in the
magnetic meridian.
5. While shifting the magnetic compass box to various distances, the current should be stopped.

Result: Magnetic field decreases with increasing distance along the current carrying circular coil.

40
 Viva Questions

1. Define magnetic field?

A space surrounding a magnet in which its influence is felt is called its magnetic field.
2. Define magnetic meridian?
A. A vertical plane containing the magnetic axis of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic
meridian
3. Why do we keep the ammeter and rheostat well away from the magnetic compass box?
A. The magnetic field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent
magnetic field due to the horse-show magnet inside the ammeter will affect the readings of the
magnetic needle.
4. Why the circular coil should be set in magnetic meridian?
A. In order to keep the field produced by the coil horizontal to the plane of the coil and normal to the
horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field in accordance with the tangent law.
5. What is tangent law?
A. When a magnetic needle is suspended freely in tow uniform magnetic fields of intensity F and H at
right angles to each other, then the magnetic needle is influenced by the two perpendicular
magnetic fields and it comes to rest making an angle θ with the direction of H (Horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field). Then, the tangent of the angle θ gives the ration of the
two magnetic field intensities. Tan θ = F/H -> F = H Tan (θ)

41
 ENERGY BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Expt. No: 05. Date:

Aim: To determine the band gap in a semiconductor using a PN junction diode.

Apparatus: Voltmeter, 1µA - 100 µA, Power supply, electrically heated oven, Thermometer,
Semiconductor diode.
Formula:
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
The energy band gap ∆𝑬 = eV
𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝟑𝟔
Theory:
In a semiconductor there is an energy gap between its conduction and valence band. For
conduction of electricity a certain amount of energy is to be given ti the electron so that it goes from
the valence band to the conduction band. The energy needed is the measure of the energy gap, ΔE
between two bands. When a P-N junction is reverse biased then current is due to minority carriers
whose concentration is dependent on the energy gap, ΔE. The reverse current, Is (saturated value) is a
function of the temperature of the junction diode. For small range of temperature, the relation is
103
expressed as Log Is = Constant + 0.5036 ∆𝐸 ( )
𝑇

Where temperature T is in Kelvin, ΔE is in electron volts. A graph in log Is and (103/T) is plotted
which comes out to be a straight line, The slope of this line will be 5.036 ΔE, giving the value of band
gap for the semi conductor.
Circuit diagram:

42
Procedure:

1. Connect the P (Red terminal) and N (Black terminal) sides of junction diode to µA block
terminal and voltmeter black terminal and fix a thermometer to measure the temperature.
2. Switch on the heater and move the control knob and allow the oven temperature to increase up
to 600C.
3. As temperature reaches about 650C switch off the oven, the temperature will rise further say
about 700 and will become stable.
4. Now temperature will begin to fall. Take current and temperature readings in steps of 5 0 fall in
temperature.

Observation:

Current (Is) in Temperature Temperature, 103/T Log (Is)

T(0C) T (Kelvin) (Kelvin)
µA

43
Graph:

A graph is plotted between log IS on Y – axis and 103/T on X – axis that comes out to be a straight
line. Its slope is found band gap.
Calculation: Plot a graph in log (Is) and 103/T and find slope
Find ΔE =
Result: Band gap of given semiconductor material is Eg = ………….......eV

Viva Questions

1. What is diffusion? Does the reverse saturation current depend on the diffusion coefficient
of electrons and holes?
A. Where there is a variation of concentration of particles is a region of space, the particles from the
region concentration till the concentration throughout the region becomes uniform. This
phenomenon is called diffusion in the p – n junction diode, the reverse current is due to the
diffusive flow of minority electrons from the p – side to the n – side and that of minority holes
from the n – side to the p – side. Hence Is depends on the diffusion coefficients of electrons and
−𝐸𝑔
⁄𝜂𝐾𝑇
holes. These coefficients are incorporated in the constant A of the equation 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑒
2. Define diffusion coefficient?
A. It is defined as the number of particles crossing unit are in unit time for unit concentration
gradient.
3. What is diffusion length?
1
A. It is the distance inside the semiconductor at which the carriers concentration drops to of its
𝑒

value as the surface.

4. Can you mention any other method for determining the band gap E g?
A. From study of the photoconductivity of semiconductor, one can determine Eg.

44
5. Why is the value of Is insensitive to the reverse bias, but is highly sensitive to temperature
changes?
A. The reverse saturation current Isis due to the minority carriers which are thermally generated. So
Isis almost unaffected by the reverse bias, but is highly sensitive to the temperature changes.
6. How far does Is remain constant as the reverse bias is increased?
A. Till the breakdown voltage is reached.

45
 DIFFRACTION GRATING
(Normal incidence)
Expt. No : 06. Date:

Aim: To determine the wavelength of the given source of light using a plane transmission grating and
spectrometer in the normal incidence position.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, magnifying lens, spirit level and source of light
(Mercury source).
Formula: The wave length of a given source of light is determined by using the formula,
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
λ= Å Where λ = wavelength of light
𝑵𝒏
𝜃 = angle of diffraction
N = number of lines per cm on the grating
n = order of the spectrum
Description:
To set the grating for normal incidence position

Illuminate the slit of the collimator by placing the source of light in line with the axis of the collimator.
Turn the telescope exactly opposite to the collimator. Turn the image of slit. Reduce the width of the
slit as narrow as possible. Clamp the venire table to the prism table. Adjust the position of the
telescope, so that the vertical cross-wire exactly coincides with the image of the slit and note the
readings on both the venires (V1 and V2). For convenience, release the venire table and adjust the
venire 1 so that 0 division of the venire 1coincides with 0 of the circular main scale. Then zero of the
venire 2 will coincides with 1800 on the circular scale, if the spectrometer is perfect. If the axis of
circular scale and the axis of rotation of telescope are not coinciding, then V2 will not coincide with

46
1800. Then, release the telescope and rotate it exactly through 90 0 from the direct reading position and
fix it. At this position the axis of the collimator and telescope are perpendicular to each other. Mount
the grating on the prism table with its plane vertical and coinciding with the centre of the prism table
as well as the ruled surface the collimator. Then, release the prism table and by looking through the
telescope, rotate the prism table slowly until the reflected image of the slit from the ruled surface of
the grating exactly coincides with the vertical cross-wire. Keeping the prism table and telescope fixed,
release the venire table and rotate it such that the ruled surface is towards the collimator exactly
through 450 and clamp it. In this position, the grating surface is vertical and perpendicular to the
incident beam from the collimator. Now, the grating is said to be have been arranged in the normal
incidence position (Fig. 1)
Procedure:
Determination of the angle of diffraction θ:

After setting the grating for normal incidence position, release the telescope and turn it to any side, say
left side of the direct image of the slit. The diffracted images of the first and second order spectrum are
observed (Fig 2). If mercury source is used, then the mercury spectrum consisting of violet 1, violet2,
blue green, yellow-1, yellow-2 and red lines will be observed ( If sodium light is used the sodium
spectrum containing D1, D2 (yellow lines), which are very close to each other will be seen). Focus the
telescope on the first order spectrum and adjust the position of the telescope so that the vertical lines
by means of slow motion screw. Then, fix the telescope and note the main scale venires (V1 and V2).
Let the total reading on each venire be L. Repeat the same procedure for other spectral lines and in
each case note the readings for first order spectral lines. Similarly, move the telescope to the right side
of the direct image and focus the first order spectrum and adjust the position of the telescope until the
47
vertical cross-wire exactly coincides with the violet line. Then, note the M.S.R and V.C for the first
order on the venire 1 and venire 2. Let the total reading on any venire be R. Similarly, note down the
readings corresponding to other spectral lines. The difference between the reading corresponding to
any line on left side L and right side R gives twice the angle of diffraction for the line, calculating
from the readings of both the venires for the first order . Calculate the average value of twice the angle
of diffraction. From this, find the angle of diffraction. Repeat the experiment for other lines on first
order and note the observations in table.
Observations: To determine the angle of diffraction θ:
Value of one main scale division 1/2 degrees = 30’’Number of divisions on the Vanier = 60
Least count of the venire, L.C = S/N =30”
T.R = Total Reading
Telescope readings
Order Color Left side Right side Angle of Average
of the of the T.R T.R diffraction angle of
spectr line diffracti 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
M.S.R V.C R=a+ M.S.R V.C L=a+(n× 𝜆=
um 2θ=L ~R on 𝑁𝑛
Venire

(a) (n) (n×L.C (a) (n) L.C)

𝜃1 +𝜃2 (A0)
) θ=
4

Violet V1

V2

Blue V1

First V2
order
(n = 1) Green V1

V2

Yellow- V1
1
V2

Yellow- V1
2
V2

Red V1

V2

48
Calculations:
First order spectrum: N = 15000 lines/inch
Precautions:
1. The grating should be arranged in normal incidence position.
2. Readings of both venires should be noted to eliminate the error due to non-coincidence of the
centre of the circular scale with the venire scale.
3. While taking the observation the telescope and prism table should be clamped.

Result: Wavelengths for different colours are calculated and the values obtained are given in the table.

Color of the spectral line Wavelength, 𝜆

(A0)
Violet 3804A°
Blue 4408A°
Green 4960A°
Yellow – 1 5798A°
Yellow – 2 6063A°
Red 6199A°

Viva Questions
1. What is meant by wave front?
A. When a wave passes through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate. The continuous
locus of all the particles vibrating in the same phase is called the wave front.
2. How many types of wave fronts are there? How they are formed?
A. Depending on the shape of the source of light used, there are three types of wave fronts.
i) Cylindrical wave front is formed from a slit. (i.e., from a linear source)
ii) Plane wave front is formed when the source is at infinity.
iii) Spherical wave front is formed from a point source.
3. What is meant by a normal spectrum and irrational spectrum?
A. The spectrum formed by a grating is called a normal spectrum because the spectral lines differ in
angle by small amounts which are directly proportional to difference in wavelengths i.e. d𝜃 ∝d𝜆.
The spectrum formed by a prism is called irrational spectrum.

49
4. Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?
A. In the case of a prism, all the light is concentrated only in one spectrum while in case of grat ing,
the incident light is diffracted in the direct image (central maximum where no spectrum is
formed).
5. How does a prismatic spectrum differ from a grating spectra?

Prism spectrum Grating spectrum

It is formed by the property of
1 dispersion It is formed by diffraction
2 The prism forms only one The grating forms no. of spectra
spectrum of different orders which are
equally situated on both sides of
the central maximum.
3 The spectrum formed is bright as The grating spectrum is not so
the entire light is used for forming bright as most of the light is
a single spectrum. used in the formation
percentage of the light utilized
in forming several spectra.
4 Deviation is least for red and Deviation is least for violet and
greatest for violet. greatest for red.
The spectrum formed by a prism The spectrum formed by the
depends upon the material of the grating is independent of the
5 prism. material of the grating.

6. Are the spectra of different orders of the same intensity?

A. No, the intensity is Maximum in the zero order and decreases with the increase of order of the
spectra.
7. How many orders of images are formed when a pane transmission grating is used?
A. It depends upon the number of rulings on the grating.
8. What will happen if the width of the clear space and the ruled space is made equal?
A. Even order spectra (2,4,6…..) will be absent.

50
 THERMISTOR

Expt. No: 07. Date:

Aim: To Study the variation of resistance of a Thermistor with temperature.

Apparatus: A Thermistor, thermometer, a heating arrangement to heat the Thermistor, constant

current power supply, galvanometer, millimetre, volt meter and connecting wires.

Working principle: Thermally Varying Resistance: The basic the electrical resistance of the device
changes drastically when the temperature is varied. These devices are called Thermistor because of
their thermally sensitive property of resistance. These materials have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.

Formula: No formula is used

Theory:
Thermistor is semiconductor devices. The basic property is the electrical resistance of the
device changes drastically when the temperature is varied. These devices are called thermistor
because of their thermally sensitive property of resistance. Thermistor materials are mainly ceramic
compounds having semiconductor properties. They are made up of oxides of Mn, Ni, Fe and Co and
blended in suitable proportion and compressed in to desired shapes from powders and heat treated to
re crystallize them, Suitable combination of these oxide materials are used to obtain the necessary
range of resistance. Conduction is controlled by the concentration of the oxygen in the
semiconductors. N-type oxide semiconductors are produced when the metal oxides are compounded
with deficiency of oxygen. Because of this process there will be excess ionized metal atoms in the
lattice. P-type semiconductors are produced when there is excess of oxygen, which results in
deficiency of ionized metal atoms in the lattice. ‘α' is called the temperature coefficient of resistance
for a given material. It is positive for metallic elements as their resistance increases with temperature.
Hence the materials have a positive temperature coefficient of materials. On the other hand α is
negative for carbon and semiconductors because their resistance which decreases with increasing
temperature. These materials have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

51
Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the +5V power supply to power supply socket and galvanometer socket.

2. Also connect the variable resistance (0 to 1000 Ω) to variable resistance socket and Thermistor
terminal to Thermister socket which are given on heater.

3. Put up the Thermistor to heater where the Thermistor keeps up option.

4. Switch on the kit and set the galvanometer to zero by variable resistance. Switch on the heater.

5. As soon as the temperature increases i.e. 550C, 600C, 650C, 700C and 750C the value of resistance is
found by multimeter. (Suppose the temperature is 40oC, now the galvanometer shows some
reflection now decrease it to zero by variable resistance and take reading of resistance by
multimeter. This is the reading of R at 40oC. Similar take readings for different temperatures).

6. Note down the readings & Plot the graph between R Vs T.

Observations: Input Voltage Vi = 4 volts

Temperature (T) Resistance

S. No Current (I)
( 0C) mA R =Vi / I (Ω)
1
75
2 70

3 65

4 60

5 55

52
Model graph:

A plot drawn between Resistance (R) on y-axis and Temperature (T) on x-axis

Applications:

1. Thermistor can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is
large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device
heats up, causing its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This
creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing the current and
voltage available to the device.
2. Thermistor is used for Self-regulating heaters, Liquid level sensing, Motor starting.
3. Thermistor is used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order
of 10 K.
4. Thermistor is regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor things like
coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the ECU
(Engine Control Unit).
5. Thermistor is also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.

Precautions:

1. The Thermistor and thermometer are kept at the same level in the oil bath.
2. The temperature of the Thermistor should not be allowed to go beyond 800 C.

Result: In this observation the Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.

53
 Viva Questions
1. What is a Thermistor?
A. Thermistor is a semiconductor material usually prepared from metal oxides whose electric
resistance changes drastically for even minute changes in temperature.

2. What is positive temperature coefficient of resistance?

A. positive temperature coefficient (PTC) refers to materials that experience an increase in electrical
resistance when their temperature is raised. e.g. all conductors.

3. What is negative temperature coefficient of resistance?

A. negative temperature coefficient (NTC) refers to materials that experience a decrease in electrical
resistance when their temperature is raised. e.g. semiconductors.

4. What is the difference of semiconductor diode and Thermistor?

A. In a semiconductor the carrier concentration depends on temperature but the carrier concentration is
temperature independent in case of Thermistor. The variation of electrical resistance in Thermistor
with temperature is due to only the thermal activation of charge carriers with increase of
temperature.

5. What is activation energy?

The quantity of energy required for the electric conduction to take place in a Thermistor is called as
the activation energy.

54
 SONOMETER

Expt. No: 08. Date:

Aim: To verify the laws of transverse vibrations of a stretched string by using Sonometer.

Apparatus: Sonometer, tuning forks of known frequency, rubber block, slotted weights, paper
riders (small V shaped paper bits).

Working Principle: Resonance: Resonance takes place when the frequency of the external
body/tuning fork is equal to the natural frequency of the segment of the wire (vibrating air
column in between the bridges inside the Sonometer).

Formula: The frequency of transverse wave is

Where, T is tension,
l is the length of the vibrating loop and
m is the mass per unit length of the wire i.e., linear density.

Experimental diagram:

55
PROCEDURE:
A wave that travels from a point into an infinite medium and never returns to the origin is
called a progressive wave. If the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave then the wave is called longitudinal wave. If the particles of the medium
vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave then the wave is called transverse
wave.
If the applied frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the body, then the body vibrates
with maximum amplitude and the phenomenon is called resonance. When two simple harmonic
waves of the same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite directions in a straight line
superimpose then the resultant wave obtained is called as stationary wave.
A stretched string vibrating in a single loop when plucked at the middle due to formation of
stationary waves with nodes at the end and antinodes at the middle is said to be vibrating with the
fundamental frequency.

The fundamental frequency is given by

From the above relation, the laws of transverse vibration of stretched strings may be stated as:
1. The frequency (n) of the stretched string is inversely proportional to its length, where tension T
and linear density m are kept constant.
i.e n ∝ 1 / l
n l = constant , where T and m are constant.

2. The length ( l ) of the stretched string is proportional to the square root of the tension T, linear
density (m) and frequency (n) are kept constant
i.e √T ∝ l
√T / l = constant where n and m are constants.

3. With the constant frequency ( n) of the stretched string, the length (l) is inversely proportional to
the square root of the linear density m, where tension T and length n are kept constant.
i.e. l ∝ 1 / √m

l √m = constant where T and n are constants

 Verification of I - Law:

The Sonometer wire is kept under tension by a suitable load, say 2 kg. A small paper rider
is place on the wire between the movable bridges. The stem of an excited tuning fork of known
frequency (n) is placed on the Sonometer box. By adjusting the positions of the bridge gently, the
length of the vibrating segment is changed till the paper rider flutters violently and is thrown off.
The length of string between the movable bridges, ‘l’ gives the resonating length.
Keeping the tension constant the experiment is repeated with the tuning forks of different
frequencies and corresponding vibrating lengths of the wire are found out as before. The values are
tabulated and the product ‘nl’ is found to be a constant verifying the first law.

56
T= dyne / cm2. String =

S.No. Frequency (n) Length of the vibrating Mean length n x l = constant

Hz segment l = (l 1 + l2) / 2
Trail 1 Trail 2
l1 cm l 2 cm

Verification of II Law:

The Sonometer wire is kept under tension by a load of 1 kg. Using a tuning fork of known
frequency, the resonating length (l) is found out as explained earlier. By increasing the load in
steps of 0.5 kg, the corresponding resonating lengths are found out for the same fork. The tension
of the wire T is calculated in each case using the relation T = mg where g is the acceleration duet
to gravity.

n= Hz. String =

S.No Tension Length of the Mean

T = mg vibrating segment length
Trail 1 Trail 2 √T √T/ l = constant
l1 cm l2 cm l = (l1+ l2) / 2

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Verification of III law:

To verify the 3rd law, resonating lengths are determined for two different wires of material
brass and steel, using the same tuning fork and same load applied to the wire. Using the value
of density ρ of the material of the wire, according to the relation m = π ρ d 4/4.

n= Hz. T= dyne/ cm2.

S.No
Material of Length of the vibrating Mean length
the wire segment l √m = constant
Trail 1 Trail 2 l = (l1+ l2) / 2
l1 cm l2 cm
1 Iron

2 Copper

3 Brass

Given: Density of Iron (mi) is 7.86 gm / cc

Density of Copper (mc) is 8.90 gm / cc
Density of Brass (mb) is 8.50 gm / cc

Calculations:

Applications:
1. Sonometer is used in Acoustics of buildings.
2. Sonometer is used to know the natural frequency of a vibrating wire.
3. Sonometer is used to find the frequency of unknown tuning fork.
4. It is commonly used in Melde’s experiment.
5. Sonometer is a very ancient device used to study the factors influencing the frequency of
oscillation of a vibrating string or wire.
Precautions:
1. The wire should be uniform throughout. It should be straight and free from kinks.
2. The pulley should be free from friction.
3. The mass applied on string should be freely suspended, otherwise tension will be varied.
4. The excited tuning fork should be placed vertically with its shank pressed on the sonometer box.

Result: The three laws of transverse vibrations of stretched strings are verified.

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 Viva Questions

1. What is the principle involved in the Sonometer experiment?

A. Sonometer is a device; it works based on the principle of Resonance.

2. Which type of waves is produced in Sonometer experiment?

A. Stationary transverse waves.

3. What are the transverse waves?

A. A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular
(or right angled) to the direction of energy transfer or wave propagation.

4. How the resonance takes place in this experiment?

A. When the frequency of the vibrating tuning fork is equal to the natural frequency of the vibrating
air column in between the bridges of the stretched string then the resonance takes place.

5. What is resonance?
A. In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater amplitude at some
frequencies than at others. Frequencies at which the response amplitude is a relative maximum are
known as the systems resonant frequencies, or resonance frequencies.

6 If a particle is in simple harmonic motion, its acceleration is inversely proportional to its

displacement from the mean position. Is it true or false?
A. The above statement is false because the acceleration of the particle moving with simple harmonic
motion is directly proportional to the displacement of the particle from the mean position.

7. What should be the length of the string in order to double the period of a simple pendulum?
According to the formula of periodic time, tp = 2п√L/g Hence, then the length should be
quadrupled if the period is doubled.

8. What is Simple Harmonic Motion?

A. A repetitive back and forth movement of an object through an equilibrium position is known as
simple harmonic motion. The movement should be such that the extreme displacement on one side
of the centre position is equal to the extreme displacement on the other side.To complete each
vibration, the time interval will be the same.

9. What is a Sonometer?
A. A Sonometer is a device that is used to demonstrate the relationship between the frequency of the
sound that is produced by the string when it is plucked.

10. What is the Law of Length?

As long as the tension of the string and the mass per unit length are constant, the frequency of the
Vibration of a string is inversely proportional to the resonating length; this is the statement of the
Law of length. F ∝ 1/l

59
11. What is the Law of Tension?
As long as the mass per unit length and the resonating length of the string is constant, the
frequency of vibration of a string is directly proportional to the square root of its tension; this is the
statement of the Law of Tension. F ∝ √T

12. What is the Law of Mass?

A. As long as the tension and length are constant, the frequency of vibration of a string is inversely
proportional to the square root of its mass per unit length; this is the statement of the Law of Mass.
F ∝ 1/√m

13. What are the uses of a Sonometer?

A. As we know, to demonstrate the relationship between the frequency of the sound that is produced
by the string when it is plucked, a device is used, which is called a Sonometer.
Hence, the following can be determined using a Sonometer:
 The frequency of the tuning fork
 The frequency of alternating current
 The tension in the string
 The unknown mass of a hanging object.

14. What do you mean by standing wave?

A. The combination of two waves obtained due to interference, having the same amplitude and
frequency and moving in opposite directions is known as a standing wave. The standing wave is
also identified as the stationary wave.

15. Which material is used for Sonometer wire?

Soft iron is used to construct the wire in the Sonometer.

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 PLANK’S CONSTANT
(Virtual Lab)
Link: (https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=195&sim=547&cnt=1)

Expt. No: 09. Date:

Aim: To determines the value of Planck’s constant.
Apparatus: 0-10 V power supply, a one way key, a rheostat, a digital millimetre, a digital
voltmeter, a 1 K resistor and different known wavelength LED’s (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Working Principle: Planck’s constant (h), a physical constant was introduced by German physicist
named Max Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck’s constant is that ‘quanta’ (small packets of
energy) can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck’s constant. It describes the behavior
of particle and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light. An LED is a two terminal
semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential barrier is developed across the p-n
junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an external voltage in the forward biased direction,
the height of potential barrier across the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of
potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward biased condition
electrons crossing the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is
emitted. This particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee
voltage is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not change.
Formula: The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given as

--------- (1)
Where, C -Velocity of light.
h - Planck’s constant.
λ - Wavelength of light.
If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee voltage), the
energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,

(2)
Equating (1) and (2), we get

(3)

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The knee voltage V can be measured for LED’s with different values of λ (wavelength of light).

(4)
Alternatively, we can write equation (3) as

Procedure for Simulation:

Place the mouse pointer over the components and click to drag wire

1. After the connections are completed, click on ‘Insert Key’ button.

2. Click on the combo box under ‘Select LED’ button.
3. Click on the ‘Rheostat Value’ to adjust the value of rheostat.
4. Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter,which is the knee voltage.
5. Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.
6. Calculate ‘h’ using equation

62
7. The wave length of infrared light is calculated by using equation,

Observations:

Color of LED Wavelength ( ) (nm) Knee Voltage (V) volt xV h = e V/c

Procedure for Real lab:

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Insert key to start the experiment.
3. Adjust the rheostat value till the LED starts glowing, or in the case of the IR diode, whose light is
not visible, until the ammeter indicates that current has begun to increase.
4. Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter,which is the knee voltage.
5. Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.
6. Using the formula given,find the value of the Planck's constant.

Results:
Planks Constant = Joule Sec
Wavelength of IR LED = nm

63
 Viva Questions
1. How it is different from Si/Ge diode?
A. LED is made of Ga As Gallium Arsenide semiconductor material which shows the optical
properties when electron-hole recombination takes place. While Si/Ge-made diode or semiconductor
shows thermal properties, they start to heat up when current flows. On the other hand LED glow.

2. How LED works?

A.When forward bias gives to the light emitting diode (LED), immediately LED doesn’t glow and
takes some time. The minimum potential at which LED starts to glow is known as the stopping
potential. The light from LED is the result of electron and hole recombination in the depletion region.

3. Why Minimum potential is required to glow the LED?

A. There is a potential barrier for the charge carrier to cross the junction, to overcome it they required
this amount of potential energy. And then after with small change in potential, they cross the junction,
and current flows through the LED.

4. In the photoelectric effect, a suitable frequency of photon falls on an electron in an atom and
ejects the electron. In LED when electron-hole recombination takes place a photon emits. How
do you see these two phenomena?
A. Both phenomena are different, in the case of the “photoelectric effect” to emit the electron, from
the surface of a material, a minimum energy of threshold frequency is required. While on the other
hand, in a light-emitting diode (LED) photon emits when electron-hole recombination takes place
above the threshold value of the voltage; known as stopping potential.

5. Why do you put two different energies eV and hv equal, what is the condition that they satisfy
in the LED?
A. From the question, no. 3 you understood the stopping potential, and a small potential above it
shows the deflection in current, simultaneously glowing in the LED. The potential energy eV is
responsible to recombine the electron-hole recombination, by which a photon of the energy hv emits.
Because of this reason, one can put eV = hv

6. Which material do we use in the LED?

A. Gallium Arsenide which is of a semiconductor nature.

7. How are photons emitted from the LED and from which section of the LED?
A. When electron-hole recombine photons emit, these emit from the depletion region.

8. Explain the concept of stopping potential in semiconductor diode by V-I Characteristics.

A. In the above figure, it is pointed out for the red, green, and blue LEDs.

9. Why does Blue colour LED stopping potential greater than the Red colour LED?
A. from the relation eV0= hν
further ν = c/λ so eV0= hν
eV0= hc/λ in this relation e, h, and c are constants, so you can see V0 ∝1/λ
for small wavelength, stopping potential is higher than the larger wavelength. As you can see in
Table. 1 the blue colour wavelength is 475 nm while for the red it is 650 nm.

64
 HALL EFFECT
(Virtual Lab)
Link: (https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=282&sim=879&cnt=1)
Expt. No: 10. Date:
Aim:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.
Apparatus:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which
consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).
Working Principle:

Fig. Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

CCG – Constant Current Generator, JX – current density
ē – electron, B – applied magnetic field
t – thickness, w – width
VH – Hall voltage
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will
generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon
is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials
especially semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a
given sample. Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is
applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the
sample. If w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. If the magnetic field is applied along
negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say electrons) toward the y-direction.
65
This results in accumulation of charge carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse
electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall
voltage VH and this effect is called Hall Effect. A current is made to flow through the sample material
and the voltage difference between its top and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the
applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage difference will be zero.We know that a current flows in
response to an applied electric field with its direction as conventional and it is either due to the flow of
holes in the direction of current or the movement of electrons backward. In both cases, under the

application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz force, causes the carriers to curve
upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up.
This charge imbalance produces an electric field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a
steady state is established. The vertical electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage
difference using a voltmeter.
In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can
express it as (2)

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field and 'v'
is the drift velocity of charge carriers. And the current 'I' can be expressed as,
(3)
Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l ,breadth 'w' and thickness 't'.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

by rearranging equation------(4)
We get

Where, RH is called the Hall coefficient. RH=1/ne

66
Procedure:
Controls
Combo box
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1. Magnetic field Vs Current.
2).Hall effect setup.

Select Material: This slider activate only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to select the
material for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.

Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to display the
Hall voltage/ current in the digital meter.

Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.

Current: This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.

Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current

Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.

Procedure for doing the simulation:

To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid.
 Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.
 Click Insert Probe button Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden
stand in the simulator. Sing Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and
corresponding magnetic field is to be noted from Gauss meter.

67
 SNo Trial No Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

Table (1)
Hall Effect apparatus

 Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box

 Click Insert Hall Probe button

 Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.

 Set "current slider" value to minimum.

 Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.

 Select the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.

 Vary the Hall current using the slider Hall current.

 Note down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage” button.

 Then calculate Hall coefficient and carrier concentration of that material using the equation
RH=VH t / (I*B) Where, RH is the Hall coefficient
RH=1/ne Where, n is the carrier concentration

68
 Repeat the experiment with different magnetic file.

Trial Magnetic Field Thickness (t) Hall current, Hall Voltage

RH
No: (Tesla T) m mA mV
1
2
3
4
5

Procedure for doing real lab:

 Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
 Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.
 Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
 Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note the
corresponding Gauss meter readings.
 Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant current
source towards minimum current.
 Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current Generator and
connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
 Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of the two
solenoids.
 Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
 Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH.
Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
 Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
 Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH using the equation 5.
 Then calculate the carrier concentration n. using equation 6.

Result:
Hall coefficient of the material =
Carrier concentration of the material = m-3

69
 Viva Questions

1. What Hall Effect experiment signifies?

A. Determination of types of superconductor,
1. Calculation of carrier concentration.
2. Determination of mobility,
3. Determination of magnetic flux density,
4. Proximity sensor, Hall sensor, and hall probe.
2. What do you understand from Lorentz’s force?
A. When a charged particle is placed or moving in the presence of the electric and magnetic field, the
total force due to these fields on the charged particle is known as Lorentz force.
3. What is Fleming’s, left-hand rule?
A. By picture, it is shown in the picture, where the magnetic force on the charged particle, magnetic
field, and current direction are perpendicular to each other. It is just to show the magnetic force
direction on a charged particle in the presence of the external magnetic field when a charged
particle enters.
4. Which material (Conductor, Semiconductor, and insulator) has been used to explain the Hall
effect?
A. Semiconductor
5. The direction of the current X-axis, Magnetic field direction is Z-axis, how do you will
determine the Hall voltage with the help of the majority charge carrier?
A. The majority of charge accumulates at one face which is free from the magnetic field direction, and
the direction of the current. When it happens a potential difference occurs between this and on the
opposite face.
6. When a charge passes through the magnetic field, a force act on it. What is the formula for
that?
A. F = qvBSinθ
7. Similarly in the presence of an electric field a force act on the charged particle, what is that
formula?
A.F= qE
8. In the presence of electric and magnetic fields, the two forces (electric and magnetic forces)
will be ;
a. equal in magnitude and opposite in directions, (or)
b. different in magnitude but the same in direction
A. a
9. Does Hall Voltage can be created with the conductor and insulator too?
A. No
10. Can you determine the type of semiconductor and concentration of charge carriers with the
help of the Hall Coefficient?
A. in n-type semiconductors the hall coefficient is negative
11. What Hall Coefficient signifies in the hall effect experiment?
A. The sign of the hall coefficient signifies the nature of the semiconductor material.

70