ASSESSMENT OF OTAMIRI WATER QUALITY

FOR AGRICULTURAL AND DOMESTIC USES

ABSTRACT

The assessment of water quality is crucial for ensuring its

suitability for agricultural and domestic purposes. This study
focuses on evaluating the Otamiri River to determine its water
quality, using physical, chemical, and biological parameters.
Samples were collected and analysed for pH, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, heavy metals, and microbial content. Results
revealed fluctuations in water quality that could impact both
farming and household use. The findings suggest that certain
portions of the river may require treatment to meet safety
standards, emphasising the need for regular monitoring to
maintain sustainable water use for both sectors. Water samples
collected was tested for these physic chemical parameters. This
result shows a slight change with respect to the W.H.O
standards. The ground water samples that have values of PH
below WHO limit, higher pb, fe2+, TDS, conductivity, Ca2+, Hco3,
So42-, No3, on the basis of WHO specifications, the ground water
cannot be regarded as portable owing to its high coliform
counts and acidic nature, From our study, the sample
investigated has PH less than WHO limit which indicates that
the water sample is acidic which may be as a result of acid rain
or dissolution of other poisonous metals. The corrosive effect of
these gases may be associated with the high rate of respiratory
tract diseases in the area.

1
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water is essential for man’s existence, it is needed in large

quantities and in all wholesomeness despite the requirements

for potable supply, water is needed for power generation,

irrigation, recreation, industrial production processes and in

waste disposal. The importance of water made it possible for

nature to distribute it all over the regions of the earth. The

planet earth contains about 70% water in form of oceans, seas,

rivers, lakes and ground water. Water provided for human

consumption should receive minimum possible treatment,

though the best supply is one which needs no treatment at all.

Public health is vulnerable to the danger of incidence of

diseases, mainly through water borne, water related and water

washed diseases. These diseases include cholera, typhoid and

para-typhoid fever, malaria, yellow fiver, schistosomosois and

guinea worm. Consequent to the incidence of disease, water

2
treatment processes become a preciosity that require careful

while handling. For an acceptable quality of water supply the

international standard for drinking water established by World

Health Organization (2007) states that water intended to human

consumption must be free from organisms and from

concentration of chemical substances that may be hazardous to

health. Supplies of drinking water should be pleasant to

drinking as circumstance permit.

The quality of water must be wholesome and palatable.

Wholesome water must be free from organisms, poisonous and

excessive amount of mineral, turbidity taste, odour, and must

be well aerated.

Water quality monitoring is necessary in present day society,

especially for rivers affected by urban effluents. Studies on

water quality in the aquatic environment are still popular in the

evaluation and management of rivers ecosystems in many

countries (Watts and Smith, 1994; Njenga, 2004; Campbell,

1994). This is due to the changes in water chemistry of river

and drainages can be the results of domestic, industrial or

agricultural discharges which may in turn lead to aquatic

ecosystem degradation (Pereira et al., 2007) such as

3
deterioration of water quality in the rivers and drainages.

Therefore, the determination of physicochemical and

bacteriological parameters of the water samples can act as

indicators of water pollution due to both natural and

anthropogenic inputs (Amadi et al., 2010, Yisa and Jimoh,

2010). According to Tahri et al., (2005), the importance of the

provision of potable water supply in any nation cannot be over

emphasized. With increasing population, wealth and economic

activities generally, there is a corresponding increase in the

demand for water supply globally (Lakhan et al., 2003).

In the last few decades, there has a tremendous increase in the

demand for water due to rapid growth of population and the

accelerated pace of industrialization (Ramakrishnaiah et al.,

2009). Human health is threatened by most of the agricultural

development activities particularly in relation to excessive

application of fertilizers and unsanitary conditions. In most

towns in Nigeria with rivers passing through them, such rivers

have been converted into dump sites or latrines, with the

consequence adverse effects on the health of the downstream

users. Most houses, public offices, schools does not have

latrines causing individuals to excrete anyhow in the bushes,

4
rivers and open spaces is a pointer to the fact the Nigerian

environment has been deteriorated. This is in addition to the

poor sanitation culture exhibited by Nigerian populace. In

addition, once the surface water is contaminated, its quality

cannot be restored by stopping the pollutants from the source

(Ramakrishnaiah et al., 2009). It therefore becomes imperative

to regularly monitor the quality of the water and to device ways

and means to protect it.

The quality of Otamiri River is been studied because they are

the source of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural

purposes in Owerri region. In the course of the sampling

exercise, it was discovered that the banks of these rivers now

serves as dump sites and also effluents from cottage industries,

municipal sewage, agricultural and urban run-off are

discharged into the river bringing about considerable change in

their quality. These anthropogenic activities on this river pose a

serious threat not only to organisms in the river but also the

downstream water users. Otamiri River is studied together

because they have a common source upstream and flows

differently downstream.

5
Water Quality Index (WQI) is one of the most effective tools to

communicate information on the quality of water to the

concerned citizens and policy makers. It thus, becomes an

important parameter for the assessment and management of

surface water. WQI is a scale used to estimate an overall quality

of water based on the values of the water quality parameters. It

is a rating reflecting the composite influence of different water

quality parameters. WQI is calculated from the point view of the

suitability of surface water for human consumption.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The effect of anthropogenic activities on Otamiri River as a

result of the increasing rate of urbanization in Owerri, Nigeria

is of a great concern due to the fact that water from this river is

the source of water distributed for public use. These rivers are

of particular importance in the study of surface water pollution

because effluents from industries, municipal waste, agricultural

and urban run-off are discharged into it thereby deteriorating

the quality.

6
1.3 OBJECTECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the present research is to provide information

on the physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of

Otamiri River in order to appreciate the impact of unregulated

waste discharge on the quality of this river as well as to discuss

its suitability for human consumption based on the computed

water quality index values.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This project provides information on how the River is being

contaminated along the reaches of the river. This study will be

of a great benefit to the residents of Otamiri community.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of this project is the proper assessment of Otamiri

water quality for agricultural and domestic uses. Study

methodology, decision on quality parameters for analysis.

1.6 LIMITAIONS OF THE STUDY

In the course of carrying out this project, some difficulties were

encountered which includes;

7
Unavailability of research material like test book. Unsteady

power supply that delayed the laboratories experiment.

Difficulties encountered when analyzing different water sample

Non availability of equipment needed for water quality analysis.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Water is a simple molecule, consisting of two hydrogen atoms

bonded to an oxygen atom with molecular formula H2O

(Bassem, 2013). It is one of the most important chemical

substances for the sustenance of life and is vital for all known

forms of life on Earth; It constitutes about 75% of the Earth`s

surface ( Hongyue et al., 2013). In terms of sheer volume, About

8
97.5% of all the water on Earth is salt water, only 2.5% of all

the water on Earth is fresh water and 98.8% of that fresh water

is frozen inAntarctica and Greenland icecaps or lies too deep

underground to be accessible; only 1.2%of the Earth’s

freshwater is available for withdrawal and human use (UN,

2005; Bassem, 2013). Water is essential to maintain and sustain

human life, animal and plant (Patil and Patil, 2010). The

availability of good quality water is an indispensable feature for

preventing disease and improving quality of life ( Oluduro and

Aderiye, 2007).

Globally. both the quantity and quality of water are of serious

concern to global leaders, government officials, urban planners,

and rural communities, among others. Water is a topic of

special concern to public health professionals, who observe,

study, and attempt to resolve water quality and scarcity issues

affecting millions of people on the planet. Water quality and

scarcity present an increasingly complex challenge given the

effects of climate change. For example, in the future some

regions may experience increased or decreased precipitation

and higher temperatures – leading to increased flooding or

droughts. These conditions can further degrade water quality

9
and worsen water pollution (Bates et al., 2008).

In Africa, as human populations rapidly expand, the demand for

water increases; however, water sources are becoming scarcer.

Approximately 40% of Africans live in dry sub-humid, semi-arid,

and arid regions. The amount of water accessible per individual

in Africa is far beneath the global average and is declining;

annual per-capital availability of water is 4,000 cubic meters

compared to a global average of 6,500 cubic meters (UNEP,

2010). In addition to increasing water scarcity in Africa and

globally, water quality is a growing public health and

environmental problem, especially given the role of water in

human health, agriculture, industry, etc. Impacts of water

quality are most significant in low- to middle-income countries.

Many people live in countries that are ill equipped to cope with

public health and environmental crises related to water.

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical and biological

characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of

water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species

and or to any human need or purpose. Water quality is crucial

in order that man can benefit from river through series of users

10
(Oliveira et al., 2006). Water quality deals with physical,

biological and chemical characteristics in relation to all other

hydrological properties. Any characteristics of water that affect

survival, reproduction; growth and production of aquaculture

species; influence management decisions; cause environmental

impact or reduce product quality and safety can be considered a

variable quality. The use of physicochemical properties of water

to assess water quality gives a good impression of the status,

productivities, and suitability of such water body. The change in

physical characteristics like depth, temperature, transparency

and chemical element of water such as dissolved oxygen,

chemical oxygen demand, nitrate, phosphate provides valuable

information of the quality of the water, the source (s) of the

variation and biodiversity (Mustapha, 2006, 2008; Sumita et

al., 2010).

Water is life, but most importantly, clean water is a necessity to

human life. Human beings consume water which has quality

compatible with human body. Water quality is a term used to

describe the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics

of water (Yuncong and Kati, 2011) that make it useable for

certain activities. The chemical, physical, and biological

11
attributes of water affect suitability of water for human use

(drinking, irrigation, industry use) and ecosystem health. This

natural resource has become scarce and polluted with the ever

growing world population. Water pollution occurs when

hazardous substances come into contact and either dissolve or

physically mix with the water (USEPA, 2014). Change in any

one of those processes affects the delicate balance with the

other processes and ultimately results in changes to the

ecosystem often in a negative direction.

The decline of water quality and the consequent reduction in

the availability of clean water has become a global issue of

concern as human population grows, industries and agricultural

activities expand and climate change threatens to cause major

alterations to the hydrological cycle. Water quality issues are

complex and diverse and are deserving of urgent global

attention and action. This should be so because water is a finite

resource that is very essential for human existence, agriculture,

industrial, etc. Comprising over 70% of the earth’s surface,

water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that

exists on our planet (David and Brad, 2009). Without any doubt,

12
 inadequate quantity and poor quality of water pose potent

threats to sustainable development.

Hence, this research intends to carry out an assessment of

otamiri water quality for agricultural and domestic uses

2.1 WATER QUALITY

Water is essential to human life and the health of the

environment. As a valuable natural resource, it comprises

marine, estuaries, freshwater (rivers and lakes) that stretch

across coastal and inland areas. Water has two dimensions that

are closely linked-quantity and quality. Surface water is a term

used to describe water in a water course, lake or wet land, and

water flowing over or lying on land after having precipitated

naturally, or after having risen to the surface naturally from

underground (Kathrine,2014).

Water quality is commonly defined by its physical, chemical,

biological and aesthetic (appearance and smell) characteristics.

A healthy environment is one in which the water quality

supports a rich and varied community of organisms and

protects public health. It is natural for consumers to view with

suspicion water that appears dirty or discoloured or that has an

13
 unpleasant taste or odour, even though these characteristics

may not in themselves be a direct consequence to health.

Water quality is aptly defined by the physical, chemical and

biological properties of water (Figure 2-1). These properties

determine its fitness for use and its ability to support healthy

functioning of aquatic ecosystems and safety of human contact

(Van der Merwe-Botha, 2009). Water quality variables are

generally defined by the source or type of pollution the system is

exposed to, the nature of the system and external forces such as

climate. The water quality variables can also be influenced by the

presence of other variables directly and/or indirectly. Water

quality is neither a static condition of a system, nor can it be

defined by the measurement of only one parameter. Rather, it is

variable in both time and space and requires routine monitoring

to detect spatial patterns and changes over time. There is a

range of chemical, physical, and biological components that

affect water quality and hundreds of variables could be examined

and measured. Some variables provide a general indication of

water pollution, whereas others enable the direct tracking of

pollution sources.

14
Water quality defines the physiochemical parameters of water in

terms of contaminations. It defines water range of impurities

ranging from soluble impurities to insoluble impurities. For the

nation as a whole, the chemical and biological character of

ground water is acceptable for most uses. The quality of

groundwater in some parts of the country, particularly shallow

groundwater, is changing as a result of human activities.

Groundwater is less susceptible to bacterial pollution than

surface water because the soil and rocks through which

groundwater flows screen out most of the bacteria. Bacteria,

however, occasionally find their way into groundwater,

sometimes in dangerously high concentrations. But freedom from

bacterial pollution alone does not mean that the water is fit to

drink. Many unseen dissolved mineral and organic constituents

are present in groundwater in various concentrations. Most are

harmless or eve beneficial; though occurring infrequently, others

are harmful and a few may be highly toxic.

Water quality is to an extent an index of water pollution, the

indices presently used in Nigeria are inadequate to indicate the

damage that is done by heavy metals, metalloids, organic and

inorganic compounds and blue green algae. Water pollution has

15
 continued to generate unpleasant implications for health and

economic development in Nigeria and developing World in

general, the consequences of which include 4.6 million deaths

from diarrheoa and a sizeable number of casualties from

ascariasis (Esrey, Potash, Roberts and Shiff, 1991). The

pollution of natural and artificial waters by waste matters

resulting from human activities constitutes one of the most

important, difficult and complex problems confronting public

health authorities in Nigeria. Water quality of rivers is generally

linked to the land use in the catchment. Land use can affect the

quality and quantity of runoff during and after rainfall (Richards

and Host 1994).

According to Montgomery(2006), Most of the water in the

hydrosphere is in the salty oceans, and almost all the remainder

is tied up in what leaves relatively little surface or subsurface

water for partial fresh water sources Moreover, much of the

water on the continents is not strictly fresh. Even rain water,

long standard for “pure” water, contains dissolved chemicals of

its kind, especially in industrialized areas with substantial

pollution. Once precipitation reaches the ground, it reacts with

soil, rock, and organic debris, dissolving still more chemicals

16
naturally, aside from any pollution generated by human actions.

Water quality thus must be a consideration when estimating

water supplies.

Figure 2.1 Water quality indicators

2.2 WATER QUALITY INDICATOR

2.2.1 PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY INDICATORS

Physical attributes indicate the physical state of the water and

the indicators include but are not limited, to the following: Water

bodies experience changes in temperature due to variations in

atmospheric conditions (Li et al., 2017), which could also be

human-induced. Temperature is a vital aspect of aquatic

ecosystems, as it determines the distribution and the aquatic

17
organisms that can survive in the system (Dallas and Ross-

Gillespie, 2015). Due to thermal adaptation of aquatic species, if

temperatures are outside the ideal range for a prolonged period,

it may affect the metabolism, growth, feeding patterns and

reproduction of the aquatic species (Whitehead et al., 2009). The

increase in water temperature is also directly proportional to the

rates of chemical processes in the water (Baron et al., 2003).

2.2.1.1. Temperature

Water bodies experience changes in temperature due to

variations in atmospheric conditions (Li et al., 2017), which could

also be human-induced. Temperature is a vital aspect of aquatic

ecosystems, as it determines the distribution and the aquatic

organisms that can survive in the system (Dallas and Ross-

Gillespie, 2015). Due to thermal adaptation of aquatic species, if

temperatures are outside the ideal range for a prolonged period,

it may affect the metabolism, growth, feeding patterns and

reproduction of the aquatic species (Whitehead et al., 2009). The

increase in water temperature is also directly proportional to the

rates of chemical processes in the water (Baron et al., 2003).

The physical parameters consist of physical components of the

environment affecting the water bodies like temperature, total

18
suspended solids, transparency, colour and rate of flow and

chemical components like total dissolved solids, alkalinity, heavy

metals (USEPA, 1991). Some heavy metals are lead, copper,

cadmium, mercury, zinc, chromium and arsenic. Aquatic

organisms (from micro-organisms to fish) depend on certain

temperature ranges for optimal growth (APHA, 1992). The

normal range to which fish is adapted in the tropics is between 8⁰

C and 30⁰ C (Alabaster and Lloyd, 1980). Increase in temperature

augments the productivity of a body of water by increasing algal

growth, bacterial metabolism and nutrient cycling rates (Klapper,

2001). Biologically, one of the most important effects of

temperature is the decrease in oxygen solubility as the

temperature increases. As a result, the increase in temperature

can also increase the oxygen demand of biological organisms

such as aquatic plants and fish (Wetzel, 2001).

Transparency is largely determined by suspended solids and tend

to be low when suspended solids are high and vice versa

(Mohammad and Saminu, 2012). Khan and Choudhary (1994)

reported that higher transparency occurred during winter and

summer due to absence of rain, runoff and flood water as well as

gradual settling of suspended particles. Total Dissolved Solids

19
(TDS) depend on various factors such as geological character of

watershed, rainfall and amount of surface runoffs and gives an

indication of the degree of dissolved substances (Singh et al.,

2010). Manjare et al. (2010) reported that high TDS is due to

heavy rainfall.

2.2.1.2. pH (acidity and total alkalinity)

pH is a measure of hydrogen ions activity, which indicates the

acidity or alkalinity of the water (WHO, 2007). The pH is a

crucial variable for sustaining aquatic life, and all aquatic

organisms are adapted to a specific pH range (Farrell-Poe, 2000).

Most natural waters have pH levels of between 6.0 and 8.5

(Rossouw et al., 2005) and most freshwater organisms can

survive in water with pH levels of 4.5-9 (Farrell-Poe, 2000).

The pH value is governed largely by the carbon (iv)

oxide/bicarbonate/carbonate equilibrium (AWWA, 2001). A pH

value of higher than 8.5 indicates that a significant amount of

sodium bicarbonate may be present in the water (Ibrahim and

Ajibade, 2012). The pH values have been observed to vary

according to seasons. As noted by Serano and Toja (1995) a

gradual increase in pH towards the end of a hydrological cycle

coincided with high primary productivity. Also Awachie (1981),

20
Wright (1982), and Ogbeibu and Victor (1995) reported that the

pH of rivers is low in the flood season and high in the dry season.

Generally, rivers flowing through forests are acidic with pH

ranging from 4 to neutrality (Welcome, 1975).

Flow rate is the volume of water that flows past a fixed point in a

river or stream over time (Kucera and Grafman, 2014). The build

up of phytoplankton populations in rivers requires a low rate of

flow; otherwise, they are flushed out of the system. Phytobenthos

can tolerate high rates of water flow and as such predominate

over phytoplankton population in fast flowing rivers and streams

(Bellinger and Sigee, 2010).

Dissolved oxygen provides a broad indicator of water quality and

dissolved oxygen concentrations in unpolluted waters are

normally about 8-10 mg/l (at 25⁰ C) (DFID, 1999). Dissolved

oxygen is important as a respiratory gas and it is used in

biological and chemical reactions (Mustapha, 2008). Different

organisms have different oxygen requirements and as such,

dissolved oxygen concentration is an important factor which

determines their behavior, growth and distribution (Adakole,

1995). Mohammad and Saminu (2012) reported that dissolved

oxygen has significant negative correlation with temperature,

21
hence, when the temperature is high, dissolved oxygen is low and

vice versa. A drop in dissolved oxygen value may also be as a

result of high deposit of organic matter from agricultural run-off

into the river, decomposition of organic matter by micro-

organisms, respiration by zooplankton, fish and other benthic

organisms (APHA, 1992). High dissolved oxygen value might be

due to abundant oxygen contributed by plants during

photosynthetic activity, which contribute in oxygenating the

water column and at the same time reducing respiration by

aquatic organisms and decomposition process at the bottom

(Olele and Ekelemu, 2008).

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is an empirical

standardized laboratory test which measures requirement for

aerobic oxidation of decomposable organic matter and certain

inorganic materials in water, polluted waters and wastewater

under controlled conditions of temperature and incubation

period (APHA, AWWA and WEF, 2005). Limnologists utilize the

demand for oxygen by oxidizable organic matter as a means of

comparing different waters especially those thought to be

affected by organic pollution (Adakole et al., 1999). In addition,

Chukwu and Odunzeh (2006) and Adeogun et al. (2011) reported

22
that high BOD values could be attributed to low dissolved oxygen

level, since low dissolved oxygen will result in high BOD and this

is a strong indication of pollution. Biochemical Oxygen Demand

(BOD) above 1 mg/l is associated with waste water contamination

(UNESCO/WHO/UNEP, 1996). Based on BOD, aquatic bodies can

be classified into unpolluted (BOD<1.0 mg/l), moderately

polluted (BOD<10.0 mg/l) and heavily polluted (BOD>10.0 mg/l)

(Maria, 1983; Adakole et al., 2002).

Water with a low pH (<6) is considered to be acidic and

corrosive in nature. Conversely, water with a higher pH level

(>8) is alkaline. Alkalinity measures the buffering capacity of a

water body or the ability of water to regulate metal content and

pH levels (Salminen et al., 2005).

2.2.1.3. Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) measures the ability of the water to

conduct electricity. This ability is dependent on the solids and/or

compounds dissolved in the water (Gupta et al., 2017). Although

dissolved solids pose no human or aquatic health threat; it can

however be an indicator of other water quality problems

(Vaishali and Punita, 2013). When a sudden increase in the

23
conductivity of a river is observed, it is generally an indication of

a source of dissolved ions in the surrounding area.

2.2.2. Chemical water quality indicators

Chemical attributes are usually responsible for the chemistry

and/or chemical processes within the water. This can also affect

the toxicity levels, odour and taste of the water.

2.2.2.1. Phosphorus

Phosphorus (P) occurs in organic and inorganic forms and is a

crucial macronutrient that influences productivity within a water

system and a limiting factor for algal growth (Nikanorov and

Brazhnikova, 2009). It is usually found in low concentrations in

natural freshwater systems due to its low solubility, while just a

slight increase may result in excessive growth of plants and

algae (EPA, 2001). Excessive concentrations of P in water

indicates pollution generally emanates from anthropogenic

sources such as industrial discharge and runoff from fertilised

agricultural land (Nikanorov and Brazhnikova, 2009); and are

responsible for eutrophic conditions (Rossouw et al., 2005).

2.2.2.2. Chloride

Most chlorine occurs in the form of chloride ions (Cl) in water

(Nikanorov and Brazhnikova, 2009), and it is a common element

24
that exists in all natural water systems. The sources of this

element in most freshwater systems include rock.weathering,

agricultural runoff, atmospheric deposition, and waste effluent

discharges (Khatri and Tyagi, 2015). Sewage waste has been

found to be a rich source of chloride, and thus, can be used as an

indicator of probable faecal contamination (Nikanorov and

Brazhnikova, 2009). In natural freshwater systems, chloride

occurs in lowconcentrations, usually less than 10 mg/l (Chapman,

1996).

2.2.2.3. Nitrate

Nitrate (NO3) is a source of nitrogen (N) that is found in very low

concentrations in surface water (Bartram and Ballance, 1996).

This nutrient is important for plants and algal growth. High

levels of NO3- in water bodies are more likely to indicate

increased nutrient run-off from agricultural lands due to fertiliser

application; and this may lead to eutrophic conditions (Grady et

al., 2014). High concentrations are also found in sewage

effluents and industrial wastes (Bartram and Ballance, 1996).

Nitrate on its own is not toxic but can have health implications

once converted to NO2-.

25
This is known as a reduction process, where the oxygen atom

becomes dissociated from the NO3- molecule (Fewtrell, 2004),

due to absence of oxygen (Cabello, et al., 2004).

2.2.2.4. Calcium

Calcium (Ca) is an essential dietary element that is generally

found in abundance in both surface and groundwater resources

(Potasznik and Szymczyk, 2015). CalciumCalcium comes from a

variety of sources and these include weathered rock materials

rich in Ca and industrial discharges (Bartram and Ballance,

1996). In natural waters, Ca concentrations are generally less

than 15 mg/l, and may reach up to 100 mg/l depending on the

type of underlying rocks (Chapman, 1996).

2.2.2.5. Fluoride

Fluoride (F) is a halogen gas and one of the major ions of

seawater (Bartram and Ballance, 1996). This element is rarely

found in natural water bodies, as it is sourced almost exclusively

from processing of domestic water supplies and effluent

discharges from certain industrial activities (EPA, 2001).

Monitoring F content in water is particularly important in

potable or domestic supply because at high concentrations

(above 1.5-2.0 mg/l) it is toxic to humans (Chapman, 1996).

26
2.2.2.6. Magnesium

Magnesium (Mg) is generally present in natural water systems as

Mg2+ (Potasznik and Szymczyk, 2015). It enters water through

weathering of mg-rich rocks (Nikanorov and Brazhnikova, 2009).

Magnesium is required for the growth of aquatic plants.

Depletion of Mg results in the reduction of phytoplankton

population because it is an essential nutrient required for the

growth of aquatic plants. In freshwater systems its natural

concentrations range from 1 to 100 mg/l, this is dependent on

the geological formation of the system (Chapman, 1996).

2.2.2.7 Ammonia

Ammonia (NH3) is common in natural water systems, although it

is found in very small concentrations (Chapman, 1996). It is also

a common pollutant and nutrient that causes eutrophication

(Rossouw et al., 2005). In water resources where its levels are

above 0.1 mg/l, it is an indication of possible sewage or industrial

contamination and excessive usage of NH3 rich fertilisers (DWAF,

1996a). From a human health perspective, high concentrations of

NH3 in excess of the recommended limits may be harmful.

According to EPA (2001), it is the un-ionised species of NH 3 that

27
are most dangerous to aquatic life, which arise from the complex

reaction between NH3, pH and temperature.

2.2.2.8. Potassium

Rocks are the natural source of potassium (K) (Tiwari, 2015). It

occurs in small quantities (less than 10 mg/l) in natural waters

since rocks that contain K are generally resistant to weathering

(Chapman, 1996). It is naturally low in surface water due to its

poor migratory ability and this is attributed to its absorption by

living aquatic organisms (Nikanorov and Brazhnikova, 2009).

High levels of K are predominantly introduced into surface water

through runoff from agricultural land due to application of

fertilisers or industrial discharges (Tiwari, 2015).

2.2.2.9. Sodium

Sodium (Na) is another major ion like magnesium and potassium

that is naturally abundant on earth and is found in natural water

resources (Bartram and Ballance, 1996). Natural concentrations

can range from 1 mg/l or less to 105 mg/l, and enhanced

concentrations are generally associated with sewage and/or

industrial discharges (Chapman, 1996). Sodium is commonly

monitored for water that is used domestically (particularly

drinking) and for irrigation (WHO, 2003).

28
2.2.2.10. Sulphate

Sulphates ions (SO4-2) exist in nearly all natural waters and its

concentrations vary depending on the underlying parent rock

(Khatri and Tyagi, 2015). Under natural conditions SO 4-2 in

freshwater systems range between 2 and 80 mg/l (Chapman,

1996). Its concentration in water can vary from a few milligram

(mg) to thousands of mg per litre (Bartram and Ballance, 1996).

Known sources of SO42- include atmospheric precipitation,

sulphur-containing compounds from industrial wastes and mine

drainage (Nikanorov and Brazhnikova, 2009).

2.2.2.11. Boron

Boron (B) is a semi-metal that is a natural constituent of

freshwaters arising from various natural processes, including

rock weathering, and once in water it is not easily removed

(DWAF, 1996b). Agricultural run-off, industrial or municipal

waste water may also contribute B to surface water systems

(WHO, 2009). Boron also acts as an essential nutrient for plants

and can be toxic when occurring in very small concentrations

(WHO, 2009). The occurrence of this element in freshwaters is

generally in relatively low concentrations; with an average of

approximately 0.1 mg/l (Chapman, 1996).

29
2.2.3. Microbiological water quality indicators

Microbiological indicators are common microorganisms found in

freshwater. The bacteria, protozoa, viruses, helminths and

parasites are the most common types of microbial organisms

(Hageskal et al., 2009). Most microbial organisms generally

occur as clumps or in association with particulate matter

(Bartram and Ballance, 1996).

2.2.3.1. Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a type of faecal coliforms (FC) that is

often used as an indicator of for faecal contamination (Bartram

and Ballance, 1996). This bacterium comes from human and

warm-blooded animal faeces. FC are not pathogenic bacteria, but

because they tend to occur along with pathogenic organisms;

their occurrence is an indication of disease-causing organisms in

water bodies (WHO, 2008). Thus, water used for consumption

must not have E.coli bacteria (DWAF, 1996a).

2.2.3.2. Total coliforms

Total coliforms (TC) refer to all bacteria that produce colonies

(DWAF, 1996c). They are used as a practical indicator of the

general hygienic quality of water (Meride and Ayenew, 2016). TC

include faecal and other similar bacteria derived from the soil

30
and non-faecal sources (EPA, 2001). TC bacteria are primarily

monitored for domestic and recreational purposes. In South

Africa, the faecal coliform counts may not exceed 5 counts per

100 mg/l for safe drinking (DWAF, 1996c).

2.2.3.3 Fungi

Fungi are a diverse collection of microorganisms that belong to

the Kingdom Eumycota and consists of five phyla (Hageskal et

al., 2009). The phyla Chytridiomycota are the type of fungi that

are adapted to aquatic environments, and naturally occur in

freshwater (Hageskal et al., 2009). Fungi are major pollutants of

surface water and yet their presence is necessary for nutrient

cycling (Al-Gabr et al., 2014). The factors such as temperature,

pH, organic nutrients and water flow regime are some of the

driving factors which influence the occurrence and growth of

fungi (Babic et al., 2013). The impacts of fungi in water quality

have mostly been underestimated, but over time they have

become acknowledged as water pollutants although their

potential health impacts are still poorly understood. While not all

fungal species are pathogenic, many are the causative agents of

foul smell and taste in drinking water (Hageskal et al., 2009).

31
Depending on the various conditions the water is exposed to, it

may be enriched by numerous constituents in different forms and

quantities. Due to the content of toxic constituents in water,

water quality assessment is often required to determine the

composition and prescribe suitable treatment method. Different

standards and/or guidelines for water qualities have been

adopted in various countries. These serve as water quality

criteria against which the suitability of the water can be

measured. There are also other scientific tools used in

conjunction with the guidelines to interpret and extrapolate more

information about the quality of the water. Many water quality

assessment techniques exist. The choice of technique used is

based on the objective of the assessment or desired output.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

32
This chapter presents the methodology that was used in the

study; it gives a description of the study area and the methods

that was used to collect data from the field. It gives a summary of

the research design, sample population and size, data collection

instruments, measuring instruments, data collection instruments,

measuring instruments, data, type, data processing and

presentation and the problems encountered during the process

of data collection and analysis.

3.1 STUDY AREA

The Otamiri River is located in the southeastern region of

Nigeria, flowing through parts of Imo State. It spans

approximately 100 kilometres, originating from the Egbu area

and passing through various towns, including Owerri, before

joining the Imo River. The river's watershed supports

agricultural activities such as crop farming, and it serves as a

source of water for domestic use by nearby communities. The

surrounding region experiences a tropical climate, characterised

by a distinct wet and dry season, which influences the river's

flow patterns and water quality. In Owerri municipal council,

Otamiri river and underground water supply from private

boreholes are the main sources of water for domestic and other

33
uses, especially when the public water supply becomes epileptic.

Otamiri river drains areas of diverse geology, soils and land use,

and like other surface water, the river is liable to pollution from

atmospheres and also from the composition of the soils and rocks

through which the surface basin filters down into rivers. In

addition, pollution of the river can result from human activities

such as urban agriculture, dumping of solid waste, and discharge

of effluent from industries into the river. Since Owerri urban and

its environs depend partly on water from Otamiri river for their

domestic, uses, there is a need to assess the quality of the river

water. Also of importance are the influence of urban land use

activities and seasonal variation on the quality of the water.

34
 Fig. 1: Map of Imo State showing drainage patterns and

sampling locations.

3.2 SOURCES OF DATA

In carrying out this study, data was derived from two sources

namely primary and secondary sources.

Primary Data

The primary source involves the collection of ground water from

the field in the study area and this was assumed to give first-

hand information on the subject under study.

Secondary Source

Secondary data was obtained from sources like:

Annual reports, journal articles, internet, magazines,

newspapers, past survey reports and books related to the subject

of the study and these were consulted at length to extract the

information required to support the findings from the study.

3.3 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Water sample was collected from seven (7) different locations of

Otamiri River. The water samples were collected in sterilized

plastic containers or good quality of screw capped polyethylene

bottles of 500ml capacity. Sampling was carried out without

adding any preservatives in bottles. The containers were sealed

35
and the samples were protected from direct sunlight during

transportation and samples were then transported to laboratory

for laboratory investigation of physio- chemical analysis.

3.4 SAMPLE TECHNIQUE

The location) of study was chosen using purposive sampling

technique because of the nature of the environment and the

locations was identified before commencement of sample

collection. Purposive sampling was involved in choosing the well

that has appropriate characteristics /properties required for the

study. The reason for selection of the method is that it is

convenient and it helps the researcher target those particular

wells which is really needed for the study. A random sampling

method was also used since most of the locations have the

required properties for the study.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE

Water sample were collected for physio-chemical analysis from

seven (7) sites, the groundwater samples were collected from

wells, water-logged and gutters. A total of twenty one sampling

points were analysed to examine the quality of water.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS

36
After collecting all the necessary data, these data will be coded

and edited, analyzed and rephrased to eliminate errors and

ensure consistency. The data obtained from the analysis, was

presented in tables. Each sample presented in each table and all

the samples were presented and finally interpreted in the

discussion below.

3.6 TEST PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY

PH/ EC/TDS Determination of water sample:

These chemical properties were determined electrometrically

with a multi-parameter photometer.

CHLORIDE DETERMINATION FOR WATER SAMPLE

These were determined titrimetrically. About 100mls of the

sample was measured in a conical flask and 1ml of potassium

chromate indicator was added. The solution was titrated with

AgNO3 solution until the appearance of brick red colour as the

end point.

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS DETERMINATION FOR

WATER SAMPLE

Whatman filter paper was first dried in an oven, brought out,

allow to cool, weighted and its initial weight was noted.

37
Thereafter, 100mls of the sample was filtered through the filter

paper. The filter was re-dried and re-weighed.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN DETERMINATION FOR WATER

SAMPLE.

The DO was determined electrometrically with DO meter

NITRATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 6mls of sample and content of one

packet of H193728-0 was added, and shaken for 50 seconds. The

cuvette was inserted into the instrument and the reading was

taken using H183200 multi-parameter photometer.

PHOSPHATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 10mls of sample while 10 drops of

H193717A-O Molybdate reagent and content of one packet of

H193717B-O were added. The cuvette was inserted into the

instrument and the reading was taken using H183200 multi-

parameter photometer.

SULPHATE DETERMINATION

The cuvette was filled with 10mls of sample and the content of

one packet of H193751-0 indicator reagent was added. It was

shaken for 1 minute and cuvette was inserted into the

38
instrument. The reading was taken using H183200 multi-

parameter photometer.

THE HEAVY METALS DETERMINATION (APHA 301A)

A measured quantity of the sample were transferred into kjeldahl

flask; 20ml of concentrated nitric acid (HNO 3) was added and the

sample pre-digested by heating gently for 20 mins. More acid

was there after added and digestion was continued for 30-40

mins. Digestion was stopped when a clear digest was obtained,

the flask was cooled and the content transferred into a 50ml

volumetric flask and made to the mark with distilled water. The

resulting solution was analysed for heavy metals using the

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT PRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 DATE PRESENTATION:

The result of the physic – chemical parameters of ground water is

presented in the table below.

4.2 PHYSIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

4.2.1 Site 1 (river); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 1 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.1 physicochemical parameters of sample 1

40
S/N Parameter Unit Sample 1 W.H.O limit

1 PH 6.93 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 157.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 74.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.005 -

5 DO Ppm 7.15 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 7 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 1.2 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.05 45.50

11 Hco3 Mg/L 1 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.05 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 13.8 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 12.2 50(0.50)

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.14 2

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.59 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.03 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.00 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

The table above shows the results of the parameters analyses in

sample 1 with the W.H.O limit standard.

41
4.2.2 Site 1 (well); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 2 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.2 physicochemical parameters of sample 2

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 2 W.H.O limit

1 PH 4.54 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 51.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 23.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.014 -

5 DO Ppm 4.45 -

6 CL Mg/L 1.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 2 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 1.5 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.26 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 1.28 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 1.58 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.0 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.07 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.50 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.01 1

42
18 Pb Mg/L 0.01 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.03 5

The table above shows the results of the physio chemical

parameters analyses in sample 2.

The PH of sample 2 is 4.54 which is below W H O limit and this

implies that the water sample is acidic.

4.2.3 Site 3 (river); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 3 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

43
 Table. 4.3.1 physicochemical parameters of sample 3

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 3 W.H.O limit

1 PH 6.91 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 110.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 44.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.007 -

5 DO Ppm 9.21 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.6 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 4 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.68 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.06 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 23.0 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.5 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.55 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 2.24 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.48 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.03 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.00 5

44
The table above shows the result of the physio chemical

parameters analyses from sample 3.

The Ca2+ in water samples 3 is high though within the limit. High

Calcium concentration causes dental calciosis which low

concentration caused dental caries. Hence it is essential to

maintain moderated concentration of Calcium in drinking water.

4.2.4 Site 4 (river); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 4 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.4 physicochemical parameters of sample 4

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 3 W.H.O limit

1 PH 6.35 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivit Ns/cm 41.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 5.0 500

45
4 TSS Mg/L 0.011 -

5 DO Ppm 7.32 -

6 CL Mg/L 0.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 1 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.01 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.60 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.00 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.67 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 5.7 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 0.97 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.84 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.04 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.001 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.001 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters analyses

from sample 4.

The Fe2+ is not significant in the water sample and this shows

that this water is not good for drinking. Iron aids to build strong

and healthy bones in humans.

46
4.2.5 Site 5 (well); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 5 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.5 physicochemical parameters of sample 5

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 5 W.H.O limit

1 PH 5.12 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 60.1 250

3 TDS Ppm 23.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.007 -

5 DO Ppm 9.11 -

6 CL Mg/L 2.0 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 6.0 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.0 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.58 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.16 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.0 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 4.01 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.00 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.20 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.48 1

47
18 Pb Mg/L 0.02 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.20 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters analysed

from sample 5.

The Pb element is significant and this when injected into the

system through drinking water can cause lead poison.

The PH of the sample is below limit showing that the sample is

acidic.

4.2.6 Site 6 (river); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 6 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.6 physicochemical parameters of sample 6

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 6 W.H.O limit

1 PH 6.01 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 150.1 250

3 TDS Ppm 138.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.014 -

5 DO Ppm 9.91 -
48
6 CL Mg/L 2.0 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 10 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.3 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.00 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.08 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 0.40 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.01 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 2.18 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 9.2 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.01 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 1.50 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.01 1

18 Pb Mg/L 0.04 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters analysed

from Sample 6.

Chloride is the indicator of contamination with animal and

human waste. Chloride is a common constituent of all natural

water and it is generally not classified as harmful constituent.

Chloride is significant in this water sample.

49
4.2.7 Site 7 (river); the result of the physiochemical analysis of

the water samples collected from site 7 are represented in the

table below. The results are compared with the World Health

Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.

Table. 4.2.7; physicochemical parameters of sample 7

S/N Parameter Unit Sample 7 W.H.O limit

1 PH 5.02 6.5-8.5

2 Conductivity Ns/cm 49.0 250

3 TDS Ppm 40.0 500

4 TSS Mg/L 0.012 -

5 DO Ppm 6.20 -

6 CL Mg/L 1.5 250

7 Hardness Mg/L 3 500

8 Po43- Mg/L 2.1 -

9 So42- Mg/L 0.02 250

10 No3 Mg/L 0.05 50(0.50)

11 Hco3 Mg/L 2.0 -

12 Fe2+ Mg/L 0.06 0.3

13 Ca2+ Mg/L 17.64 25

14 Mg2+ Mg/L 6.2 50

15 Na+ Mg/L 1.02 -

16 K2+ Mg/L 2.01 -

17 Cu Mg/L 0.02 1

50
18 Pb Mg/L 0.06 0.01

19 Zn Mg/L 0.02 5

The table above shows the physio chemical parameters analysed

from sample 7.

The TDS of the sample is within the W.H.O range. The TDS is the

term used to describe, the Inorganic salts and small amount of

organic matter present in solution of water.

4.3 DISCUSSION

The result of the pysio-chemical parameters of ground water are

presented in tables 1-7 above. Climate factors such as rainfall,

temperature, pressure and humidity, etc. play an important role

in the geology as well as terrestrial environment.

A sound knowledge of these factors help in understanding the

complex processes of these interaction between the climate and

biological processes in water bodies.

PH is the scale of intensity of acidity and alkalinity of water and

measures the concentration of hydrogen ions. The W.H.O limit

for PH is 6.5-8.5. In the present study, the PH values of ground

51
water observed varied from 4.5 to 6.91. The pH value was below

limit in samples 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, and this shows that the water

sample is acidic. The higher the ground water acidity in the area

has been attributed to the dissolution in rain water, effluents of

acidic gases including Co2, No2 and So2 that originated from gas

flares and vehicular exhaust (Ogunkoya and Ef1,2003). The pH

values of samples 1 and 3 are within W H O limit and this occurs

however as ground water acidity is reduce as it percolates the

soil and under goes base – buffer reactions. The PH values of

samples 1 and 3, that fell within the allowable range could be as

a result of sea water infiltration into the area thereby

neutralizing the acidity of the ground water.

PH is considered as an indicator of over all productivity that

causes diversity. Though PH has no direct impact on consumers,

it remains an important parameter (USEPA, 1983) which controls

water solubility and the rate of metallic reaction. The results of

all parameters determined in the ground water shows that the

water is acidic and is not good for drinking.

The Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of water capacity to

convey the electric current. It signifies the total number of

dissolved acids. The W.H.O limit of (EC) is 250Ns/cm samples

52
2 ,4,5 and 7 shows less seasonal variation of conductance

whereas samples1, 3 and 6 show large seasonal variation

reflecting significant water-soil interaction resulting in the

dissolution of the geological medium. Locally, the effect of salt

water infiltration into the aquifer from the tries influence Imo

River in Afam-nta may also be an important factor in the

Stalinization of ground water in the area.

TDS is the presence of dissolved solid and it indicates the

behaviour of salinity in the ground water. TDS is one of the main

quality parameter for any purpose. Water containing more than

500 mg/L of TDS is not considered desirable for drinking water

supplies. All the ground water samples investigated showed TDS

level lower than the allowable limits of W.H.O. The higher values

of TDS in sample land 6 revealed abundance of major ions,

arguable due to infiltration of pollutant through dilution in sub-

surface soil. The observation may also account for the strong

positive correlation between TDS/cl, TDS/fe.

TSS and DO which was investigated from our samples ranges

between 0.005 – 0.014 and 4.45 – 9.91 respectively there are no

prescribed standards suggested by W.H.O for parameters of Tss

53
and DO for drinking purpose, so no comparison can be made fro

observed values.

Hardness is the property of water which increases the boiling

points of water. Hardness of water mainly depends upon the

amount of Calcium or Magnesium salts or both. Total hardness is

the indicator of hydrogeology and aesthic quality of water. The

W.H.O limit for hardness is 500 mg/L the hardness for the water

samples investigated falls in within the W.H.O limit and this

shows that the waters is soft thereby making the ground water

portable.

Chloride comes from natural and man-made sources are the main

sources of chloride in ground water. The sources are agricultural

runoff, inorganic fertilizers, industrial and septic tank effluents,

animal feed stocks, chloride is not harmful to human at low

concentration but could alter the taste of water at concentrations

above 250 mg/L. chloride mean values obtained from this study

were generally lower than the W.H.O 250 mg/L limit.

Sulphate and nitrate (So42- and No3) sulphate is a non toxic union

but ailment like catharsis, dehydration and gastrointestinal

irritation have been linked to it when concentration is high.

54
Concentration of Sulphate in water sample was insignificant in

the samples investigated.

Nitrates have low concentrate in the samples investigated.

Natural gas rich in oxides of Sulphur and nitrogen are flared into

the atmosphere n this general area, at an average rate of 42.5

million cubic meters per day. Never the less, the lower

concentration of No3 in ground water may party be cause by the

organic carboh (present in the soil) reduction of nitrate to

nitrogen gas and sometimes to ammonia in the presence of

denitrifying microbes (how know and Glynn, 2005).

HCo3 was invested in our sample and raged from 2.0- 0.26. there

are no prescribed standards suggested by W H O for HCo 3 for

drinking purpose, so no comparison can be made from the

observation.

The enrichment of HCo3 in ground water is consistent with the

dissolution in ground water of biogenic Co2 trapped in the soil.

Calcium and Magnesium, the hardness is directly related to

Calcium and Magnesium content. In the present study, Calcium

concentration ranged between 1. 58 mg/L to 23.0 mg/L and

ground below the permissible limit of W H O. while Magnesium

55
content in the water samples was rising from 4.01 mg/L to 12.2

mg/L which was ground within the prescribed limited. Ca 2+ and

Mg2+ are usually released into ground water by the dissolution of

field spars and micas (freeze and Chery, 1979) that are important

components of the Deltaic plain sands aquifer.

Fe occurs higher their permissible limit in sample 2 and this

suggests greater dissolution of fe from metallic wastes and

scraps and lateritic fe within the soil particles. Other samples

investigated falls within the W H O permissible limit. P b has W H

O limit as 0.01. the samples investigated has higher

concentration above the W H O permissible limit which is an

indication of high rate of atmosphere pollution by fumes from

autombile exhaust and other industrial sources, industrial use of

Pb produced materials. It may also reflect the high filtering

capacity of the soil with rest to ground water.

Cu and Zn falls within the permissible W H O limit.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Water is a solvent and dissolved minerals from the rocks with

which it comes in contact. Ground water may contain dissolved

minerals and gases that give it the tinge taste enjoyed by many

people. Without these minerals and gases, the water would taste

flat. The most common dissolved mineral substances are Sodium,

Calcium, Potassium, Chloride, bicarbonate, and Sulphate. In

water chemistry, these substances are called common

constituents.

From our study, the sample investigated has PH less than WHO

limit which indicates that the water sample is acidic which may

be as a result of acid rain or dissolution of other poisonous

metals. Visual observation showed that farm lands and bushes

57
are eroded as a result of bad water. Also the gaseous emissions

have been linked to increased greenhouse effect and the

establishment of local heat Islands in this area and this causes

heating effect on the crops and animals.

The measured pb concentrations of ground water are higher in all

causes than W.H.O limit recommended maximum of 0.01mg/L.

also, soil samples within the study area have p b concentration up

to 1.51pp which are potentially in transit to the water table.

Consequently, edible vegetable show pb equality impairment and

bioaccumulation. The toxic effects of excessive pb levels in

human include significant damage on the brain of both adults

and infants (centernoetal, 2005), it is also known to induce heart

related diseases

The rapid population growth that outpaced public utilities

development and the unsanitary habits of the residents are

reflected in the high coliform load in ground water within the

study area. Although the water samples were not tested for

specific pathogens, the high microbial population present

Suggests that it may be harmful to health. This is confirmed by

medical records from major health institution within the study

58
area. Currently, gastro- enteritis account for between 10 and

15% in adults and 20 to 30% in infants of all diseases reported.

5.2 CONCLUSION

The assessment of water quality is crucial for ensuring its

suitability for agricultural and domestic purposes. This study

focuses on evaluating the Otamiri River to determine its water

quality, using physical, chemical, and biological parameters.

Samples were collected and analysed for pH, temperature,

dissolved oxygen, heavy metals, and microbial content. Majority

of quality parameters investigated were found below the WHO

limit. The sources of pollutants were diverse with industrial

effluent, municipal solids and septic having a great impact on the

ground water resources. The ground water samples that have

values of PH below WHO limit, higher pb, fe 2+, TDS, conductivity,

Ca2+, Hco3, So42-, No3, on the basis of WHO specifications, the

ground water cannot be regarded as portable owing to its high

coliform counts, while enhanced pb concentration makes the

ground water objectionable.

59
The unacceptable coliform counts in ground water may be linked

to the high rate of gastro-entreritis because many inhabitants

rely on ground water for domestic use.

The corrosive effect of these gases may be associated with the

high rate of respiratory tract diseases in the area.

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings and conclusion, the following

recommendations are hereby made to help to alleviate the

problems faced by the individuals in the study area.

First and foremost, there is need for continuous regulation and

quality control monitoring to prevent and control pollution in

order to safe guard human health and facilitate Nigeria

attainment of millennium development goal (MDG) for water and

sanitation.

Secondly, the effective maintenance of water quality of local

resources through appropriate control measures, continuous

monitoring of their quality parameters and their use as a

supplement t river. Water hall reduce the water crisis in the city.

Thirdly, the government should set up a model to end all gas

flaring activities by oil companies operating in the area.

60
Finally, there should be adequate sensitization on the dangers of

polluted water to human health and the environment

REFERENCES

61
Adakole, J. A., Balogun, J. K. and Lawal, F. A. (1999). Water

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