THE d-BLOCK ELEMENTS

• The elements lying in the middle of periodic table belonging to groups 3 to 12 are
known as d-block elements.

• Their general electronic configuration is (n-1) d1-10 ns1-2 where (n-1) stands for the
penultimate shell and n is the outermost shell.

• The elements of 'd' block in the periodic table are called transition elements. The
very name transition' given to the elements of d-block was only because of their
position between s- and p-block elements.

A transition element is defined as the one which has incompletely filled d-orbitals in its
ground state or in any one of its oxidation states.

• There are mainly three series of the transition metals,

3d- series – Sc(Z=21) to Zn(Z=30)
4d-series - Y (Z = 39) to Cd(Z= 48) and
5d-series – La (Z=57 to Hg (Z=80) - excluding Ce(Z=58) to Lu (Z=71)
6d- series – Ac(Z= 89) to Cn(Z=112) – excluding Th (Z=90) to Lr (Z=103)

• Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury (members of group 12) have fully filled d-orbitals(d10) in
their ground state as well as in their common oxidation states and hence, are not
regarded as transition metals. These do not show any characteristics properties of the
transition elements except complex formation.

• However, their chemistry is studied along with the chemistry of the transition metals,
as they are the end members of the 3d, 4d and 5d transition series respectively.
Exceptional Behaviour of Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury:

❖ As already mentioned, due to completely filled d10 configuration, Zn, Cd And Hg

show exceptional behaviour as compared to other members of their respective
series. Taking the example of first transition series, zinc differs from the other
members in following characteristics:

(i) It has much higher atomic radius and ionization enthalpies.

(ii) Its compounds are white while those of the other members are coloured.

(ii) It does not show variable oxidation states unlike other members.

(iv) Its compounds (containing Zn2+ ions) are diamagnetic while those of the other
members are paramagnetic.

(v) It forms lesser number of complexes than other members.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS:

1. ENTHALPIES OF ATOMISATION:

❖ Energy required to convert

metallic crystal into
individual atom is known as
enthalpy of atomization.

❖ The transition metals have

high enthalpy of atomization.
It first increases reaches to
the maximum in the middle
of each series and then decreases.

❖ It can be explained on the basis of strong interatomic interaction due to unpaired

electrons in the middle of each transition series. Greater the number of unpaired
 electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding, and stronger is the enthalpy of
atomization.

❖ Enthalpy of atomization, is an important factor in determining the standard

electrode potential of a metal, thus metals with high value of enthalpy of
atomization (i.e. very high boiling point) tend to be noble in their reactions.

❖ Metals of second (4 d) and third (5 d) series have high enthalpy of atomisation

than the corresponding elements of first (3d) series because of strong metal-
metal bond in heavy elements.

❖ This is an important factor in accounting for the occurrence of much more

frequent metal-metal bonding in compounds of the heavy transition metals

❖ The Enthalpy of Atomization (in kJ/mol) of the elements of the first transition
series is given below:
METAL Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Enthalpy of Atomisation 326 473 515 397 281 416 425 430 339 126

2. METTALIC CHARACTER:

❖ Except for mercury which is a liquid, all the transition elements have typical metallic
structure (hcp, ccp or bcc).

❖ They exhibit all the characteristics of metals. For example, they are hard, lustrous,
malleable and ductile, have high melting and boiling points, high thermal and
electrical conductivity and high tensile strength.

❖ Explanation: Transition elements have relatively low ionization energies and have one
or two electrons in their outermost energy level (ns1 or ns2). As a result, metallic bonds
are formed. Hence, they behave as metals.

❖ The unpaired d electrons also result in the formation of metallic bonds. Thus, in the
formation of metallic bonds, both ns and (n-1) d electrons participate.
❖ Greater the number of unpaired d electrons, stronger is the bonding due to the
overlapping of unpaired electrons between different metal atoms.

❖ Cr, Mo and W have maximum number of unpaired d electrons and are, therefore,
hard metals whereas Zn, Cd and Hg are not very hard metals due to the absence of
unpaired electrons.

3. MELTING AND BOILING POINTS:

❖ The transition metals have very high

melting and boiling points.

❖ The melting point of the transition

metals rise to a maximum and then fall
as the atomic number increases.
Manganese and technetium have
abnormally low melting points

❖ Strong metallic bonds between the atoms of these elements are responsible for the
high melting and boiling points. This is clear from their high enthalpies of
atomization. (i.e. heat required to break the metal lattice to get free atoms).

❖ The strength of the metallic bond depends upon the number of unpaired d-electrons
(half- filled d-orbitals). Greater is the number of unpaired electrons (half-filled
orbitals), stronger is the metallic bonding and higher is the melting and boiling points.

❖ In a particular series, the metallic strength increases up-to the middle with
increasing number of unpaired electrons, (e.g., Sc has 1, Ti has 2, V has 3 and Cr has 5
unpaired electrons). After Cr, the number of unpaired electrons goes on decreasing
(e.g., Fe has 4, Co has 3 unpaired electrons and so on). Accordingly, the melting point
decrease after middle (Cr) because of increasing pairing of electrons.
 ❖ It should be that Tungsten (W) has the highest melting point among the d-block
elements.

❖ The dip in the melting point at Mn in the first transition series and at Tc in the second
transition series and somewhat in Re in the third transition series can be explained
on the basis that they have exactly half-filled d-orbitals. As a result, in each case, the
electronic configuration is stable, i.e., electrons are held tightly by the nucleus so that
the delocalisation is less and the metallic bond is much weaker than that preceding
element.

4. ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII:

❖ Atomic Radii.

(i) The atomic radii of the

transition metals lie in-between
those of s- and p-block elements.

(ii) Generally, the atomic radii of

d-block elements in a series
decrease with increase in atomic number but the decrease in atomic size is small
after midway. This may be seen in the first transition series, where, the atomic radii
of the metals decrease from scandium to chromium but after that it remains almost
same

Explanation: In the beginning, the atomic radius decreases with the increase in atomic
number as the nuclear charge increases whereas the shielding effect of d-electron is
small. After midway, as the electrons enter the penultimate shell, the added d-electron
shields (screens) the outermost electron. Hence, with the increase in the d-electrons,
screening effect increases. This counterbalances the increased nuclear charge due to
increase in atomic number. As a result, the atomic radii remain practically same after
chromium.

(iii) At the end of the period, there is a slight increase in the atomic radii.
Explanation: Near the end of series, the increased electron-electron repulsion between
added electrons in the same orbitals are greater than the attractive forces due to the
increased nuclear charge. This results in the expansion of the electron cloud and thus
the atomic radius increases.

(iv) The atomic radii increase down the group. This means that the atomic radii of
second series are larger than those of first transition series. But the atomic radii of
the second and third transition series are almost the same.

Explanation: Since in the atoms of the second transition series, the number of shells
increases, their atomic radii are larger than those of the elements of the first transition
series. The atomic radii of the elements of the second and third transition metals are
nearly same due to lanthanide contraction (or also called lanthanoid contraction)

❖ Ionic radii.

(i) The trend followed by the ionic radii is the same as that followed by atomic
radii.
(ii) Ionic radii of transition metals are different in different oxidation states. In
general, the ionic radii decrease with increase in oxidation state.
 (iii) The ionic radii of the transition metals are smaller than those of the
representative elements (main group elements, i.e., s and p-block elements)
belonging to the same period.

5. DENSITY

❖ As we move along a transition series from left to right, the atomic radii
decrease due to increase in nuclear charge. Hence, the atomic volume
decreases.

❖ At the same time, atomic mass increases. Hence, the density increases. For the
first transition series, these values are given in Table below.

❖ The last element. zinc, is an exception, having large atomic volume and hence
lower density.

❖ It should be noted that among the d-block elements, iridium has the highest
density (22.61 g/cm3) whereas scandium has the lowest density (3.43 g/cm3).
Osmium has slightly lesser density (22.59 g/cm3) than iridium. Thus, Osmium
and Iridium have almost the same density.
6. IONIZATION ENTHALPIES
✓ The ionization enthalpies of transition elements are higher than those of s-block
elements but lower than p-block elements.

✓ In a particular transition series, ionization enthalpy increases gradually as we move

from left to right.

✓ However, the increase in ionization enthalpy along the period in d-block is very
small. The increase in ionization enthalpy is primarily due to increase in nuclear
charge. As the transition elements involve the gradual filling of (n-1) d-orbitals,
the effect of increase in nuclear charge is partly cancelled by the increase in
screening effect. Consequently, the increase in ionization enthalpy along the period
in d-block is very small.

✓ The 5d-transition elements possess higher ionization enthalpy than 3d- and 4d-
transition elements. This is due to the greater effective nuclear charge in these
elements because of the ineffective shielding of the nucleus by 4f electrons.

7. ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• The electronegativity of the d-block elements is higher than those of s-block

elements.

• It is because d-block elements have smaller atomic radii and hence the nucleus of
the d-block elements can attract the electrons in a bond more tightly.

• Moreover, the electronegativity of d-blocks increases gradually across the series

because of the increase in effective nuclear charge.

8. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

• When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of magnetic

behaviour are observed: Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic

• Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by the applied field while the
paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted.

• Substances which are attracted very strongly are said to be Ferromagnetic. In fact,
ferromagnetism is an extreme form of paramagnetism. Many of the transition metal
ions are paramagnetic.
 • The magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired electrons and
can be calculated by using the formula

μ =√n(n + 2) B.M.

where, n is the number of unpaired electrons and μ is the magnetic moment in units
of Bohr magneton (BM)

• If any species contains an unpaired electron, the species is paramagnetic while the
species having all electrons paired are diamagnetic

9. FORMATION OF COMPLEX COMPOUNDS

➢ The transition metals form a large number of complex compounds.

➢ This is due to the following reasons:

1. Comparatively smaller sizes of the metal ions and their high charge
density.

2. The availability of vacant d-orbitals which can accept lone pairs of

electrons donated by other groups

10. CATALYTIC PROPERTIES

The transition metals and their compounds are known for their catalytic activity.
This activity is ascribed to the following reasons:

1. Because of their variable valencies, transition metals sometimes form

unstable intermediate compounds and provide a new path with lower
activation energy for the reaction.

2. In some cases transition metals provide a suitable surface for the reaction
to take place. The reactants are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst where
reaction occurs and thus come closer to one another facilitating the reactions
to proceed.

11. FORMATION OF COLOURED IONS

➢ Most of the transition metal compounds are coloured in . This is due to the
presence of unpaired electrons which can undergo d-d transitions.
 ➢ With the absorption from light, there is excitation of electrons from the
d-orbitals of lower energy to the d-orbitals of higher energy called d-d
transition.

➢ When white light interacts with the compounds, a part of it is absorbed and
electron from a lower energy d-orbital is excited to a higher energy d-orbital.
The energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency of light absorbed.

➢ The observed colour of the substance is always the complementary colour

of the colour which is absorbed.

➢ Complementary colour can be identified using MUNSHELL COLOUR WHEEL.

Opposite colours are complementary

➢ For example, if a substance absorbs wavelength corresponding to the red

light, the transmitted light will consist of wavelength corresponding to the
greenish blue light and the substance will appear greenish blue.

12. THE ALLOY FORMATION

➢ Transition metals form a large number of alloys.

➢ Since d-block elements are quite similar in atomic size, the atoms of one
metal can substitute the atoms of other metal in its crystal lattice. Thus,
on cooling a mixture solution of two or more transition metals, smooth
solid alloys are formed.
 ➢ Alloys are generally harder, stronger, have desirable casting properties, have
high melting points and are more resistant to corrosion than the individual
metals.

➢ The metal chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel and

manganese are used for the formation of special steels and stainless steel.

➢ Alloys of transition metals with non-transition metals such as brass, bronze,

etc., are also of considerable industrial importance.

13. FORMATION OF INTERSTITIAL COMPOUNDS:

➢ Small non-metallic atoms

such as H, B, C, N, etc., are
able to occupy interstitial
spaces of the lattice of the
d-block elements to form
combinations which are
termed interstitial
compounds.

➢ They are usually non-

stoichiometric materials having formulae like Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0.56, TiH1.7, etc.

➢ The bonds present in them are neither typically ionic or covalent. The formula do
not correspond to any normal oxidation state of the metal.

➢ Some of the characteristics of interstitial compounds are:

(i) The interstitial compounds have similar chemical properties as the parent metals
but differ appreciably in their physical properties such as density, conductivity, etc.

(ii) As a result of filling up of the interstitial spaces, the metals become rigid and
hard. Steel is quite hard as it is an interstitial compound of Fe and C. Some of the
borides are as hard as diamond.

(iii) Interstitial compounds possess high melting point which are higher than those
of pure metals.
14. STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL (E°) VALUES AND
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

❖ The magnitude of ionization enthalpy gives a clue to the amount of enthalpy

required to raise the metal to a particular oxidation state in a compound.

❖ In other words, thermodynamic stability of the compounds of transition

elements can be evaluated in terms of the magnitude of ionisation enthalpies of
the metals-smaller the Ionisation enthalpy of the metal, stabler is its compound.

❖ In solution, the stability of the compounds depends upon electrode potentials rather
than ionization enthalpies. Electrode potential values depend upon factors such as
enthalpy of sublimation (or atomisation) of the metal, the ionisation enthalpy and
the hydration enthalpy, i.e.

❖ Thus, ∆TH, is the total enthalpy change when solid metal, M(s) is brought in the
aqueous medium in the form of monovalent ion, M+(aq).

❖ The electrode potentials are a measure of ∆TH. Hence, quantitatively, the stability of
the transition metal ions in different oxidation states can be determined on the
basis of the electrode potential data. The lower the electrode potential, i.e. more
negative the standard reduction potential of the electrode, more stable is the
oxidation state of the transition metal in the aqueous medium.

Trends in the M2+/M Standard Electrode Potentials

(1) There is no regular trend in the E° (M2+/M) values. This is because their ionization
enthalpies (IE1 +IE2) and sublimation enthalpies do not show any regular trend.
(2) The general trend towards less negative E° values along the series is due to the
general increase in the sum of first and second ionization enthalpies.
(3) Copper shows a unique behaviour in the series as it is the only metal having positive
value for E°. This explains why it does not liberate H2 gas from acids. It reacts only with
the oxidizing acids (HNO3 and H2SO4) which are reduced. The reason for positive E°
value for copper is that the sum of enthalpies of sublimation and ionization is not
balanced by hydration enthalpy.

(4) The values of E° for Mn, Ni and Zn are more negative than expected from the general
trend. This is due to greater stability of half-filled d-subshell (d5) in Mn2+, and completely
filled d-subshell (d10) in Zn2+. The exceptional behaviour of Ni towards E° value from the
regular trend is due to its high negative enthalpy of hydration.
Trends in the M3+/M2+ Standard Electrode Potentials

(1) A very low value for E° (Sc3+/Sc2+) (not given in the Table above) reflects the stability
of Sc3+ ion which has a noble gas configuration.
(2) The highest value for Zn is on account of very high stability of Zn 2+ ion with d10
configuration. It is difficult to remove an electron from it to change it into +3 state.
(3) The comparatively high value of E° (Mn3+/Mn2+) shows that Mn2+ is very stable which
is on account of stable d5 configuration of Mn2+.
(4) The comparatively low value of E° (Fe3+/Fe2+) is on account of extra stability of Fe3+
(d5)i.e., low third ionization enthalpy of Fe.

15. OXIDATION STATES

❖ All transition elements, except the first and last member of the series, exhibit a
number of oxidation Rates as shown in the Table below

❖ The transition elements have their valence electrons in two different sets of
orbitals, i.e. (n-1)d and ns. Since there is very little difference in the energies of
these orbitals, both energy levels can be used for bond formation.
❖ The most common oxidation state of the first row transition metals is +2 except in
the case of scandium (which has +3); +2 state is due to the loss of two ns electrons.
It follows from this that d orbitals are more stable than the s-orbital after scandium.

❖ Mostly ionic bonds are formed in +2 and +3 oxidation states. In compounds of

higher oxidation states, the bonds formed are mostly covalent since they are formed
by sharing of d- electrons. For example, all the bonds between manganese and
oxygen are covalent in 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− , (permanganate ion).

❖ The elements which show the greatest number of oxidation states occur in or near
the middle of the series. For example, Mn shows all the oxidation states from +2 to
+7. The lesser number of oxidation states on the extreme ends are either due to too few
electrons to lose or share (e.g., Sc, Ti) or too many d-electrons so that fewer orbitals
are available to share electrons with others (e.g., Cu, Zn).

❖ The highest oxidation state shown by any transition metal is +8 (by osmium or in a
very few compounds by ruthenium)

❖ The maximum oxidation states of reasonable stability in the first transition series is
equal to the sum of s and d electrons up to Mn followed by an abrupt decrease in the
stability of higher oxidation states.

❖ The variability of oxidation states of transition elements, is due to incompletely

filled d-orbitals.

❖ In a group of d-block elements higher oxidation states are more strable for heavier
elements.

❖ The oxidation state of a metal in a solvent depends on the nature of the solvent. The
metal in particular oxidation state may undergo oxidation or reduction in the
solvent under appropriate condition. For example, Cu+ is unstable in water as it may
undergo oxidation whereas Cu2+ is stable. If the element exists in more than one
oxidation state, their relative stabilities can be known from electrode potential data.

Cu+ (aq) + e- → Cu(s) °

𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.52 V
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) °
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 0.34 V

Thus, Cu+ is reduced more easily and hence is less stable than Cu2+.
❖ Many copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous solution and undergoes
disproportion follows :

2 Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu

The greater stability of Cu2+ (aq) than Cu+ (aq) is due to much more negative
enthalpy of hydration for Cu2+ (aq) than Cu+ (aq). This more than compensates
for the high second ionization enthalpy of Cu.

❖ In case of oxides and fluorides of transition metals, Oxygen stabilizes the highest
oxidation state even more than fluorine, e.g., highest fluoride of Mn is MnF 4 (OS of
Mn = +4) whereas highest oxide is Mn2O7 (OS of Mn = +7). The reason for this is the
ability of oxygen to form multiple bonds with the metal atoms.
INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS

• Elements in which the last electron fill up in f-orbital are called f-block elements.

• These elements are also known as INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS.

• They have two series, i.e. lanthanoids (the 14 elements following lanthanum) and
actinoids (the 14 elements following actinium).

• Lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members of ordinary
elements in any series.

(A) LANTHANOIDS
PROPERTIES OF LANTHANIDES
Some properties of lanthanoids are discussed below:

1. Electronic Configuration
• General outermost electronic
configuration of Lanthanides
are lanthanides are 6s25d0-1
4f1-14.

• In these elements, last

electron enters into the 4f-
orbital till Yb(4f14).

• Only Cerium, Gadolinium and

Lutetium have electron in
5d-orbital as well.
2. Atomic and Ionic Radii

• The atomic and ionic radii decrease from lanthanum to lutetium.

• This is due to the unique property of lanthanides which is known as LANTHANOID

CONTRACTION.

• In lanthanide series,
with the increase in
atomic number, there
is a progressive
decrease in the
atomic as well ionic
radius of trivalent
ions from La3+ to Lu3+.

• The regular decrease

(contraction) in the
atomic and ionic
radii of lanthanides
with increasing
atomic number
lanthanide
contraction.

• The decrease in atomic radii is not quite regular whereas for the ionic radii of Ln3+
ion, it is quite regular.

Causes of Lanthanide Contraction:

• As we move along the period from left to right in lanthanide series, the atomic
number increases i.e. number of protons keeps on increasing.

• For every proton added in the nucleus the extra electron goes to the same 4f orbital.

• The 4f orbital shows poor shielding effect because of which there is a gradual
increase in the effective nuclear charge experienced by the outer electrons.

• Thus, the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons in the outermost shell increases
as the atomic number increases and size increases.
Consequences of Lanthanoid Contraction
1. Separation of lanthanoids:
Due to lanthanoid contraction, there is a small difference in the size of lanthanoids. So,
there is the difference in some properties of lanthanoids like solubility, degree of
hydration and complex formation. These differences enable the separation of lanthanides
by ion exchange method.
2. Similarity in size of elements belonging to same group of second and third
transition series:
They both [(Zr,Hf) and (Nb, Ta)] have similar size because of lanthanide contraction. The
similarity in size of the atoms of the elements belonging to the same group of second and
third transition series after lanthanum is evidently due to the effect of lanthanide
contraction.
3. Effect on the basic strength of hydroxide:
As the size of the lanthanoid ions decreases from La3+ covalent character of the
hydroxides increases and hence the basic strength decreases, as the Ln-OH bond become
stronger with decrease in size of Ln3+ ion.
Thus, La(OH)3 is most basic whereas Lu(OH)3 is least basic.

3.Oxidation States
• The most stable oxidation state of lanthanides is +3.

• Oxidation states +2 and +4 also survive but they relapse to +3, e.g. Sm2+, Eu2+ lose
one electron to attain +3 state and hence are good reducing agents.

• Similarly, Yb2+ with f14 configuration acts as a reductant and Tb4+ with half-filled f-
orbitals acts as an oxidant.

• While Ce4+ and Pr 4+ in aqueous solution gain one electron to attain +3 state and
hence are oxidising agents.

• There is a large gap in energy of 4f- and 5d-subshells and thus, the number of
oxidation states is limited.

General Characteristics of Lanthanides

(I) APPEARANCE:Lanthanides are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air. The
hardness increases with increasing atomic number (samarium is steel hard).
(II) DENSITY AND MELTING POINT: Lanthanides are highly dense metals and have high
melting point (1000 to 1200 K). Sm has exceptionally high melting point of 1623 K.

(III) METALLIC PROPERTY: They have typical metallic structure and are good
conductors of heat and electricity.

(IV) ALLOY FORMATION: With other metals especially Fe they easily form alloys, e.g.
alloy MISCHMETAL of rare earth element (94%-95%), iron (up-to 5%) and traces of
S, C, Ca and Al. Pyrophoric alloys contain Ce (40.5%), La +neodymium (44%), Al, Ca and
S.
(V) MAGNETIC PROPERTIES: Generally, paramagnetism is shown by lanthanoid ions.
The paramagnetism arises due to the presence of unpaired electrons in f-orbital. Magnetic
moment depends upon orbital and spin magnetic moment together. Neodymium shows
maximum paramagnetism.

(VI) COLOUR: Most of the trivalent ions are coloured in solid as well as in aqueous
solution both due to partly filled f-orbital.

(VII)COMPLEX FORMATION: Lanthanoids have low density due to large size and high
charge. As a result, they have poor tendency to form complex.

(VIII)IONIZATION ENTHALPY: The first ionisation enthalpies of lanthanoids are around

600 kJ mol', the second about 1200 k] mol comparable with those of calcium. The
variation of the third ionisation enthalpy indicates that a certain degree of stability to
empty, half-filled and completely filled orbitals, as indicated by the abnormally low third
ionisation enthalpies of La, Gd, Lu.

(IX) CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR: The first few members of the series are quite reactive,
almost like calcium. However, with increasing atomic number, their behaviour becomes
similar to that of aluminium. These combine with hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen sulphides
and halides. They also form oxides (M2O3 type) and hydroxides M(OH)3 type, which are
basic like alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides.
Uses of Lanthanoids

(1) Lanthanoids are used for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes.
(2) Mischmetal alloy of lanthanoid is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint.
(3) Mixed oxides of lanthanoids cracking of petroleum are used as catalyst in
(4) Some lanthanum oxides are used as phosphors in television screens.

(B) ACTINOIDS
• These are the elements in which last electron filled in 5f-orbitals.

• The actinoids are radioactive elements and the earlier members possess relatively
long half-lives while the latter ones have half-life values ranging from a day to 3
minutes [ for lawrencium (Z=103)].

• The latter members could be prepared only in nanogram quantities.

Properties of Actinoids

1. ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
• The general
electronic
configuration is
5f1-146d0-17s².

• The irregularities
in the electronic
configuration of
actinoids is due to
the stabilities of f0,
f7 and f14
occupancies of 5 f-
orbitals.

2. IONIC SIZE:
• The radii of trivalent and quadrivalent ions of actinoids contract slightly with
increasing atomic number due to ACTINOID CONTRACTION.

• This contraction results from poor shielding experienced by 5f-electrons.

• Element to element actinoid contraction is greater than Lanthnoid

contraction because shieling of 5f- electrons is more poor than 4f-electrons.

3. OXIDATION STATES:
• Actinoids show a variety of oxidation states due to comparable energies of 5f,
6d and 7s energy levels. Hence all the electrons take part in bond formation.

• The dominant oxidation state of actinoids is +3 which show increasing stability for
the heavier elements.
4. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES:
• Actinides are strongly paramagnetic.

• Their magnetic moments are smaller than the theoretically predicted values as the
5f-electrons of actinoids are less effectively shielded which results in quenching of
orbital combination.
5. COLOUR OF THE IONS:
• Actinide ions are generally coloured due to f-f transition.
• It depends upon the number of unpaired electrons in 5f-orbitals.

6. COMPLEX FORMATION:
Actinoids have greater tendency to form complexes due to higher nuclear charge and
smaller size of their atoms.

7. CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR:
They are highly reactive metals especially in the finely divided state. A fewmproperties
are given below:
(i) They react with boiling water to give a mixture of oxide and hydride.
(ii) They combine with most of the non-metals at moderate temperature.
(iii) All these metals are attacked by hydrochloric acid but the effect of nitric acid is very
small due to the formation of a protective oxide layer on their surface.
(iv) Alkalies have no action on them.

Uses of Actinoids
The three most important actinoids which find uses as such or in the form of their
compounds are thorium, uranium and plutonium. A few uses of these elements are as
follows:
1. Uses of Thorium. It is used in atomic reactors and in the treatment of cancer. Its salts
are used in making incandescent gas mantles.
2. Uses of Uranium. It is used as a nuclear fuel. Its salts are used in glass industry (for
imparting green colour), textile industry, ceramic industry and in medicine.
3. Uses of plutonium. It is used as a fuel for atomic reactors as well as for making atomic
bombs.
Similarities between Lanthanoids and Actinoids

There are some similarities between lanthanoids and actinoids, which are:
(1) Both exhibit +3 oxidation state predominantly.
(2) Both are electropositive and have high reactivity.
(3) Like lanthanoid contraction, there is actinoid contraction also.
(4) They show ion exchange behaviour
(5) In both series, f-orbitals are being progressively filled.

Differences between Lanthanoids and Actinoids